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Good Leadership

                Leadership is a process in which one person, who is the leader, has an influence on the other people in order to achieve a set common goal. Leadership is important, as it ensures a cohesive and coherent environment. A leader is therefore, responsible for the leadership role in a group. The leader will practise their leadership responsibilities by making use of the skills and knowledge they possess. There is a common belief that leaders are born, however, leaders can also be made through training and learning of the leadership skills. A person’s beliefs, values, character, and ethics play a big role in determining what kind of a leader they will be. Today, we experience both good and bad leadership in different situations. Bad leadership is harmful to the society in many ways, therefore, should be avoided. Good leadership is what the society should adopt, as this is beneficial in many ways (Gene 12). This essay will therefore, address the concept of good leadership, and some of the steps one must follow to ensure good leadership.

Knowledge and skills contribute to the leadership process. However, personal attributes such as values, and character, are the ones that make a leader to stand out among all the others. For instance, in order for one to practise good leadership, they must be impartial. This enhances trust and credibility of the leader by the people. These are aspects that are earned by the leader, and do not merely come with the position. However, if a leader acts ethically and professionally, they will be able to win trust of the people. Impartiality mainly refers to the treatment of everyone in an equal manner, devoid of favouritism. This improves relationships between the leader and the people, since the people will be sure that their leader does not have hidden outcomes in their position, neither will they question motivation. In this case, a leader must therefore, apply equal standards to all people and perform unbiased evaluation (Gene 25).

Good leadership requires strong confidence. A good leader must therefore, be confident in themselves. Confidence includes a leader having an honest understanding of who they are, their skills and knowledge, as well as their capabilities. This is the first step of confidence on the leader’s side. Similarly, the people must have strong confidence in their leader, as this will prove that the leader is effective. It is the people who judge and determine the effectiveness of their leaders. Therefore, if people do not trust their leader or lack confidence in them, this means the leader is poor. Therefore, a good leader must work toward building their confidence, as well as the confidence of the people they lead. This is because; one must prove to people that they are capable of good leadership (Manning and Curtis 44).

For good leadership, a person must be capable of learning from their mistakes. Normally, it is always hard for people to accept their mistakes and take lessons from them. However, as a leader, one must be ready to accept their mistakes and learn lessons from them. This is an important step in learning, growing, and improving in the leadership position. A good leader must therefore, not blame their mistakes on the people, but admit them, as this is known to accelerate immense progress. If a leader made a few failures in the past, this should not deter them from moving on. They must have the confidence and courage of learning from their failures, and using the failures to produce success. Mistakes and failures are crucial in leadership, as they offer the leader more experience in specific situations. It becomes probable that after making a certain mistake, or failing terribly in a specific situation, a leader might not repeat the same mistakes in the future, and they will not fail if the same situation presents itself in future. Therefore, accepting past mistakes and learning from them, makes a good leader (Manning and Curtis 53).

Good leadership involves putting the needs of others first. This is the virtue of selflessness. True leadership requires putting the people and their causes ahead of one’s own causes. In the past, the world has witnessed great leaders such as King, Gandhi, Lincoln, among others, who were selfless. A selfless leader does not seek to be rewarded or getting any kind of personal gain. Such leaders will also be accountable for their actions, bearing in mind that being a leader does not guarantee them careless mistakes, instead; they are aware that their actions too have consequences. Unlike the past influential leaders, most leaders today do not exhibit a high level of selflessness, as these are concerned with their personal rewards, instead of prioritizing the needs of the people they serve. However, selflessness does not mean that a leader loses their sense of self or will. A selfless leader might have a great ego and strong will but will always know that the needs of the people come first. This requires a considerable level of self-sacrifice, patience, hard work, and love (Gächter et al 33).

Leaders in the contemporary world still have a chance to learn how to be good leaders. They have great examples of influential leaders in the past, whom they can learn from. For instance, King was one of America’s greatest leaders, with an impressive leadership style. He possessed many personal attributes, skills, and knowledge, which enabled him perform in his position of leadership. Some of the major factors that shaped King to be an influential civil rights leader is the fact that he lived in a highly racist period, as well as the nature of his background.  As a leader, King portrayed all the above mentioned characteristics of good leadership. His self-confidence was high, as he knew what he was capable of doing, and did exactly that.  He also put the needs of his people first. In this case, King fought for the liberation of the blacks from racism. He therefore, struggled to achieve equal treatment of both blacks and whites. Although this could get him arrested at times, he knew he was doing it for the black community, and therefore, did not give up. This also depicts the height of selflessness King possessed (Flora, Hardwick and Taylor 417).

The “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” provides a good example of how leaders should address important issues. Even though he was arrested alongside other members of his organization, King chose to use the non-violent method to bring to the authorities the issue of racism and injustice. He quotes Paul in the Bible and the other prophets, as having also moved from their hometowns to spread the gospel to far away cities, but his was a message of freedom. Although the clergymen had condemned King of the bold step he had taken and had negatively criticized him, King did not rattle back at them in the letter. Instead, he received the criticism in a cool manner, and took his time to respond to the criticism effectively. King in his letter is also confident about the non-violent method he used; as he defends and justifies it to the clergymen, the letter is addressed to. This therefore, shows that a good leader must stand for what is right, despite the negative criticisms they face (Flora, Hardwick and Taylor 434).

Leaders serve as role models to the people they lead, even though this may not be obvious to them. As a leader, a person has great influence on the people they lead, and their actions and decisions can have great effects on the people. For instance, in the book Acts of Faith, Patel explains how role models and early influences affect people’s behaviour and personality. Children are good at aping what their role models do, either good or bad. In this book, Patel mainly focuses on how positive or negative influence on young people can make them contribute positively or negatively in the society in future. Using different accounts, Patel shows some leaders influence young people negatively, leading to them becoming bad people in society. This therefore, shows that a good leader must be cautious of the kind of influence they have on the people. Good leaders must ensure they have a positive influence on all the people they lead, for the good of the society (Patel 28).

 

Works Cited

Flora, Joseph, Hardwick, Lucinda and Taylor, Todd. “The Companion to Southern Literature:

Themes, Genres, Places, People, Movements, and Motifs.” New York: LSU Press, 2002. Print.

Gächter, Simon, Nosenzo, Daniele, Renner, Elke and Sefton, Martin. “Who Makes a Good

Leader? Social Preferences and Leading-by-Example.” Discussion Paper No. 3914, December 2008. Web.

Gene, Klann. “Building Character: Strengthening the Heart of Good Leadership.” New York:

John Wiley & Sons, 2007. Print.

Manning, George and Curtis, Kent. “The Art of Leadership.” London: McGraw-Hill

International, 2003. Print.

Patel, Eboo. “Acts of Faith: The Story of an American Muslim, in the Struggle for the Soul of a

Generation.” New Jersey: Beacon Press, 2010. Print.

 

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Plato’s Theory of Forms in the Phaedo and Aristotle’s Theory of Substance in the Categories

The theory forms by Plato is an argument that is presented in different types of his works, including the Phaedo. Plato spent close to forty years developing this theory, which has immensely contributed to Western philosophy, and aroused different reactions among various scholars. In this theory, Plato asserts that the physical world, as we see it, with its imperfections, is a representation of another invisible perfect and ideal world. Therefore, the things and experiences in this world are not all there is. However, humans cannot experience the perfect world in this physical world, unless they leave the physical world (Dancy 4).

On the other hand, Plato’s student, Aristotle, developed his theory of substances, which featured in his books Categories and Metaphysics Z. In this theory, Aristotle considered substances, and not accidents, to be the real things in the world. Substances include things such as a dog, a planet, a rock, and people, among other things. Substances are important because they are the first to exist before accidents, and accidents cannot happen without substances. He categorizes substances as primary and secondary substances. Between Plato’s theory of forms and Aristotle’s theory of substances, the latter is more convincing, as it bases on science, therefore helping us integrate our basic understanding of the world and the scientific facts about the world (Spellman 12).

Plato in his theory of forms believed that although a person’s life and their experiences therein vary from time to time, are definite, and realistic, it is not the same case with their ideal forms, which he believed were static and real. To him, forms were universal and comprised the real world. The visible ones are just particulars, a mimicry of the real things.  He believed that people perceive reality differently from what it really is. Plato believed that what people think is reality, is not, and is the opposite of reality. Nonetheless, Plato in this theory emphasized a form of recognition, rather than cognition (Dancy 18).

Plato believed that, beyond this physical world, there existed a perfect and ideal world. The physical world human beings live in today is characterized by different imperfections, unevenness, and impurities that have been copied from the ideal perfect world beyond the physical world. This is the case because our physical world, apes the real forms of the ideal perfect world, in a disorderly manner. However, Plato thought that there exists a connection between our physical world, and the realms of forms. From this relationship, the mortal beings come to understand forms and the order of life (Dancy 34).

The theory of substance in Aristotle’s Categories categorized substances into two groups, the primary substances and the secondary substances.  Primary substances are absolute objects, which can be distinguished from other things, including secondary substances, and other predicables. Aristotle’s Categories bases on the explanation of meaning of substances, so that a person hearing it for the first time can be in position to understand the concept. In addition, it presents substances as a primitive concept, which people have little knowledge about (Spellman 22).

The theory of substance by Aristotle was developed as a way of counteracting Plato’s theory of forms. Aristotle considered a substance to be a complex and integrated whereby there is raw matter, as well as a compound of the substance. He also explained some traits of a substance, which are important, as they define it. First, he believed that substances do not allow for levels or degrees. This therefore, implies that something cannot be too much of a substance or too little of a substance. Additionally, Aristotle believed that substances could allow for contraries, or opposites. In this case, a substance may have two different opposing sides. For instance, a child might at one point fall sick, and they may be well at another point. Therefore, sicknesses and good health, are opposing sides, that characterize children in this case, who are substances. Aristotle also pointed out that since substances have contraries, they also have the capability of enduring over time. This means that substances can survive change in different periods (Spellman 8).

In Aristotle’s theory of substance, he differs with Plato’s views about the relationships between the real forms and the ideal forms. According to Aristotle, no one has the capability of having the knowledge about what kind of relationship exists between the two forms, or how the two forms interact. Aristotle in his theory goes ahead to argue that the real and ideal forms are pure, everlasting, and unchanging, therefore, there is no way these can relate or compare to the material objects of forms in the physical world, which are full of imperfections in their physical state. Aristotle in his theory of substance, however, seems to agree with Plato on the fact that human beings develop some type of biological and scientific wisdom of a primary substance, which can either be rock, animal, or plant, but only when there is knowledge of its causes (Spellman 35).

Plato in his theory of forms believed that human beings had the capability to rise above their physical world, and that is the time when they would have the opportunity to understand the other form in the invisible world, which are ideal and real. This could probably happen when a person dies, and is out of the physical world, as Plato did not specify whether this would happen during a person’s lifetime or not. On the contrary, Aristotle believed that all the forms were here in the physical world, and that one did not have to exit the physical world in order to experience a different type of form. However, one just needed to adopt a scientific method in order to apprehend the ideal perfect form (Voegelin and Sandoz 32).

While Plato believed that the physical world is a representation of the real perfect form, and that what we perceive today as real is just a mimicry of the real things, but in an imperfect state, Aristotle thought differently. He believed that the physical world is real, as we perceive it, and has real things. Aristotle was knowledgeable in the physical and biological phenomenon, having been a teacher of this. He therefore, understood that the physical world comprises multiple forms, although not all of these were perfect. However, he believed that human beings were capable of identifying different forms by using their natural senses (Spellman 2-3).

Plato’s theory of forms is not capable of explaining our physical world, how it came into existence, and the order of things in this world. Another limitation of Plato’s theory of forms draws from his idea of resemblance of two objects. Plato believed that two objects might resemble each other because they all are a part of the common form. For instance, a white dog and a white book are similar in the form of “black.” However, according to Plato, these two must also be explained as similar in another form. This assumption makes this theory lose its reliability, as it fails to explain how this happens (Spellman 6).

In the Phaedo and other of his works with the theory of forms, Plato did not give a detailed explanation of his ideas, thus different scholars have ended up interpreting Plato’s thoughts differently, making this theory unreliable. Plato himself also criticized this theory in his other works. In addition, Aristotle too, and other philosopher then criticized this theory and termed it as ineffective. On the other side, Aristotle in his theory of substances was wise to give detailed meaning of every thought or idea he used in this theory. Since Aristotle was knowledgeable in Biology, he used part of this knowledge to build on his facts in the theory, making the theory more reliable, as it is based on scientific facts, which cannot be challenged. Unlike Plato’s theory, Aristotle’s theory helps us have a clear understanding of the world around us. This theory makes us see things the way they are, as absolute entities, unlike Pluto’s theory, where things are considered not what they really are, but a reflection of other things. Therefore, Plato does not explain what exactly things are (Voegelin and Sandoz 12).

Aristotle in his theory also makes people put their scientific knowledge, as well as their common knowledge to test.  For instance, when scientists talk about how light waves travel, it seems to be complex. However, if people understand that light waves are just things like puddles, then it is easier for them to explain light waves in relation to puddles, thus making them understand a new concept from a different concept they knew before. Rejecting the theory of substance is therefore, likened to rejecting common sense. This is because different things in the world are substances, made up of particles and atoms (Spellman 38).

Conclusively, Plato in his theory of form is seen as being subjective, therefore unreliable. This is because he emphasizes his idea that all things in the world cannot be known nor understood, since the real forms are not in this imperfect physical world, but exist in an invisible perfect eternal world. This greatly contrasts with Aristotle’s view that the physical world can be known and understood. Aristotle explained that human beings could gain this understanding of their physical world when they use their senses in the processes of observation and logic. It is therefore easier to relate with Aristotle’s opinions compared to Plato’s.  Plato’s theory is more of an imaginary theory, as it bases on imaginary facts. On the other hand, Aristotle in his theory, bases on scientific facts, which are easy to prove. Although Plato’s theory is unrealistic, it is still of importance in philosophy today, and cannot be rendered useless in philosophy. It continues to contribute to the important debate in philosophy about forms and their true meaning.

 

 

 

 

Works Cited

Dancy, R. M. Plato’s Introduction of Forms. London: Cambridge University Press, 2004

Spellman, Lynne. Substance and Separation in Aristotle. London: Cambridge University

Press, 2002.

Voegelin, Erick and Sandoz, Ellis. Order and History: Plato and Aristotle, Volume 16. New

York: University of Missouri Press, 2001.

 

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Better Health Care in Poverty Level Philadelphians

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25^th, January 2013

 

 

The city of Philadelphia faces increased rates of poverty, and it is feared that the situation might get worse in future, if appropriate steps are not taken to address this. Families struggle to survive in this city, even as healthcare costs continue to rise at a higher speed than people’s wages. This has resulted in a considerable number of people to lack health insurance, and not be able to afford decent healthcare. A major health outcome of this is high infant mortality rate, which is higher than, and almost twice, as the national average. Therefore, this needs positive change through various programs in the area. A community health promotion will help improve this situation if the program sets and adheres to its objectives, as this essay suggests (Diffley, J.  & Parker).

In order to eliminate inequalities in healthcare provision among Philadelphians, and reduce gap between rich and poor, the healthcare providers will ensure that they offer their health services, to all; including poor and rich, thus the economically challenged patients will have equal access to healthcare. The rich have had an advantage in accessing quality health in the area, increasing poor health among the economically challenged. Therefore, access to quality healthcare will cease to base on economic status of a person (Green & Tones, 2010).

Secondly, the community healthcare promotion will ensure that all the people participate in health promotion and strive toward their own empowerment.  Through community mobilization, the people will be encouraged to take control of their lives, by making the right decisions in life, as the more empowerment they have, the more power they have to make decisions influencing their health. Public participation in health promotion will be ensured by challenging Philadelphians to be responsible for themselves, and take personal steps to address their life problems and improve their living conditions (Ludovici-Connolly, 2010).

The third goal of this health promotion is to bring various influential partners on board.  Factors of health promotion are wide, thus one party cannot achieve the goals alone, but with collaboration with different companies, the public, civil society, and private companies. Proposal writing inviting various partners to come on board will help in development of stronger strategies, and funding to ensure quality health among all Philadelphians (Green & Tones, 2010).

Different obstacles have existed among Philadelphians, in their way to quality health. This community health promotion will aim at removing all the hindrances to healthcare among the people, so that they can as well enjoy quality health. These goals must be achieved not more than the next five years, to compensate for the quality healthcare most Philadelphians have missed for most of their lives.

 

References

Diffley, J.  & Parker, S. (n.d). “The State of Black Philadelphia.” Retrieved 26 January 2013

http://www.urbanleaguephila.org/documents/StateofBlackPhiladelphia.pdf

Green, J. & Tones, K. (2010). Health Promotion: Planning and Strategies. New York: SAGE.

Ludovici-Connolly, M. (2010). Winning Health Promotion Strategies. New Jersey Human

Kinetics 10%.

 

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Public Law

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15^th, January 2013

 

The two main legal systems in the world include the common law system and the civil law system. Different countries in the world therefore, adopt features from one of these systems to incorporate into their own legal systems. Further classification of law results in a variety of categories of law and their sub-divisions. Public law, as well as private law is some of the most important classifications. The category of public law governs relationships between the state and individuals. In this case, the term “individuals” refers to companies, organizations, and citizens. Public law is further divided into different sub-categories to include constitutional law, criminal law, and administrative law. The public law in the United States is greatly influenced by the English law, called the “common law.” The common law has its roots in England where it is the legal tradition. This law evolved in England starting from the 11^th Century. It is also the basis of private law of different countries, including Ireland, Wales, and the United States, with an exception of the state of Louisiana, whose state law is based on civil law (Carper McKinsey & West, 2008).

The common law and civil law have different histories. The common law came into existence in 1066 because of the unification of the customs of the Norman conquerors and the older Saxon law. The civil law however, has a longer history than that of the common law and traces its roots from the Romans. The spread and adoption of these law systems in other world countries was mainly influenced by colonization and conquests. Nonetheless, the core distinction between these two legal systems lies in their structure, history, and legislation. While the common law system lacks a clear comprehensible structure, the civil law system puts more emphasis on the organization and clarity of its structure (Allen, 2010).

Law in society is made up of a variety of rules, which are enforced by law courts, and play the role of government regulation, as well as the control of relationships between the state and its citizens, and between the citizens themselves. Public law and private law is a crucial categorization of the law, as these primarily address different relationships in a country, which are paramount in ensuring stability. As noted earlier, public law regulates the relationships between a country and its citizens. This law is further divided into the constitutional law, the administrative law, and the criminal law. These are enacted by the Congress, and enforced by a different arm of government. Public laws have a distinct method of citation used in their reference. This method includes an abbreviation of public law, followed by the Congress number, and the law number. For instance, a public law can be cited as Pub.L. 77-003 (Carper McKinsey & West, 2008).

The constitutional law mainly involves the functions of a country’s constitution. The different constitutional matters addressed by this law include the duties and operations of the local and central government, the composition of parliament, parliament procedures, civil liberties of citizens, and their citizenship. The administrative law governs the administration of government projects and schemes in a country. This is therefore, a body of laws meant to address the issues and disputes arising from the government administration of the projects. Such issues could be those affecting citizens; therefore, this law helps address the complaints of citizens against actions by the government agency administering specific projects. On the other hand, the criminal law serves the purpose of addressing criminal acts and crime in a country. This sub-division is considered under public and not private law because criminal activities disrupt social order and pose a threat to the whole community. The offenders of this law therefore, are victimized as having made an offence against the state and are subject to sanctions. In this situation, the state takes on the responsibility of all the costs involved in prosecution and punishment of these law-breakers (Stott & Felix, 1997).

Private law on the other hand, is concerned with individual relationships in a country. These relationships include those between individuals, as well as companies and organizations. The state is however, still involved in this law, as it is responsible for the provision of an appropriate method of addressing the dispute involved. In this law, the offended individual initiates the legal process, before the state comes in to offer a solution. This law mainly affects an individual, a family, or small group. These also serve to help citizens negatively affected by government programs to access justice. Likewise, those individuals making an appeal for an executive ruling such as deportation could benefit from this law. As the case of public law, private law also has a citation method, which is similar to that of public law, except for the abbreviation part of “private law.” An example of a private law citation is, Pvt.L. 77-003 (Carper McKinsey & West, 2008).

There is a distinction between public law and private law, based on their application. Private law aims at controlling the relationships between individuals, companies, and organizations. The main categories of this law include tort, company, land, contract, and employment law. Public law on the other hand applies in the regulation of relationships between individual people, organizations, and companies, and the state, with its various organs. The categories of public law include immigration and criminal laws, as well as matters involving human rights issues (Allen, 2010).

Specifically, private law is horizontal in nature, while the public law is vertical in nature. This is because private law regulates relationships between parties who fall at the same level. On the other hand, public law regulates relationships between different parties with varying level of superiority; in this case, the state is more powerful than an individual, or a company. Therefore, a case involving two or more individuals, a company, or a private organization, then such a case will be addressed by the private law. Subsequently, a case involving an individual, a company, or organization, with the local authority, police, government department, public authority or body, and any other public official, then this kind of case will be settled by use of the public law (Oliver, 1999).

The differences between public and private law can be addressed basing on three major principles. The first factor involves the aims of the two laws, as seen before; public law aims at the protection of the interests of the public, while private law aims at protecting private interests. For instance, torts invade on private rights, while crimes invade on public rights, as they affect the community and society at large. The second differentiating factor between private and public law lies in the type of sanctions, which are administered to the law-breakers in both cases. A comparison between penal codes and civil ones shows that penal codes are more severe. Criminal activity evokes sanctions such as fines, imprisonment, among others. On the other hand, offenders in private law are required to pay for damages to the plaintiff, and sometimes injunctions may be granted. The third difference between private and public law lies in the type of parties involved. In public law, the state or its organ is the main party, which initiates the litigation. On the other hand, in private law, the party responsible for activation of the law process is an offended individual, or company, referred to as the plaintiff (Oliver, 1999).

Nonetheless, private law borrows from public law, and so does the public law borrow from private law. Therefore, their discrepancy is not vast. For instance, the state plays the role of a legislator in private law through the provision of mandatory norms, which all individuals need to adhere to, mainly for social order. Generally, this category of law has experienced considerable changes since its inception in different countries. This will continue to evolve in different these countries, with more changes depending on the legal needs of different countries.

 

References

Allen, M. L. (2010). “Public Law and Private Law: The Frontier from the Perspective of a Tort

Lawyer” Retrieved from http://www.erudit.org/revue/cd/1976/v17/n4/042139ar.pdf

Carper, D., McKinsey, J. & West, B. (2008). “Understanding the Law”. Cengage Learning: New

York.

Oliver, D. (1999). “Common Values and the Public-Private Divide”. Cambridge University Press:

London.

Stott, D. & Felix, A. (1997). “Principles of Administrative Law”. Routledge: London.

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Explain what is right and wrong with the following statement: “Most TNCs invest in less developed countries because of the low wages that they can pay there.”

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 Communication is an important aspect of human interaction, and therefore, any person participating in communication must ensure that they do this in the most appropriate way to ensure that their message is passed across and is understood by their recipients. If communication is performed in an effective manner, there will be cases of misinterpretation of information, and lack of understanding of the message will be unheard of. Communication can take different forms, including spoken or written, with an intention of addressing an audience or readers. Communication through a speech is oral and addresses an audience in order to convey information. This like any other communication form has regulations and guidelines that should be followed to ensure information is passed to the audience and understood clearly (Neale & Bowers 2004).

The above sentence is right and wrong at the same time. Considering the aspect of grammar, the sentence has utilized the appropriate grammatical elements. These include the use of tenses and spellings of words. However, there is something wrong with the above sentence, as it is not well structured. First, there is an element of ambiguity in the sentence. Ambiguity happens when a sentence, word, or phrase can be understood in more than one sense. This sentence therefore exhibits a type of ambiguity known as structural ambiguity as the whole sentence depicts more than one meaning. In as much as ambiguity is a crucial function in language, it forms a basis for misinterpretations in communication. This is because of the complexity ambiguity presents in language, which leads to different people to understand information differently, which could be in the wrong way (Cornbleet & Carter 2001).In this statement, the final part “. . . because of the low wages they can pay there,” is quite ambiguous. The pronoun “they” does not give a clear distinction of what element is being referred to. Therefore, a listener may assume this pronoun refers to the TNC’s, while another listener may think it refers to the less developed countries.

Another wrong thing with this statement is the aspect of generalization, which is adopted. In generalization, the speaker uses one phrase to describe a group of people, events, ideas, places, or things. They do this instead of providing an independent description of a specific thing. Therefore, this imposes on the affected phenomenon characteristics that may not apply to them (Neale & Bowers 2004). In this statement, it would have been better if the speaker mentioned some of the specific TNC’s they are referring to. This would be crucial, considering this is a negative element of TNC’s, which they are addressing, the exploitation of the developing countries by TNC’s. Therefore, since generalizations target groups, this statement has used the word “most” to mean “many” TNC’s, which is a large group. This is a case of lack of facts. It seems the speaker does not have any valid facts to explain this phenomenon. Such a situation results in invalid information, which may be disregarded by the audience, due to failure of basing the information on facts.

From this explanation, it emerges that in speech and presentations, appropriate use of language is mandatory. This is an element of writing, which the writer has immense control over. The language should be straightforward and portray simplicity, such that individuals who are not fluent in the language can easily get the information being passed across. Another important aspect depicted in this case is the aspect of clarity. Clarity is essential in speeches and presentation as it ensures the audience understand the information easily, thus preventing misinterpretation of the message being passed across. Clarity ensures that the information is structured in an organized manner, which makes understanding easy. In the statement, the writer disregarded logic in the presentation of his idea in the sentence (Neale & Bowers 2004).

 

Works Cited

Cornbleet, S. & Carter, R 2001, The Language of Speech and Writing, London, Routledge.

Neale, T. & Bowers, J 2004, Speechwriting in Perspective: A Brief Guide to Effective, New

York, Nova Publishers.

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Nursing

            Nursing means a different thing to different people, as each person has their own way of describing it, based on either their knowledge or experiences in nursing. Nonetheless, nursing is diverse; as it is both an art, and a science, which makes use of the nursing process. In the practice of nursing, nurses play a major role in nursing, as these are responsible for the promotion of optimal health and the prevention of sicknesses in the lifespan of their clients. Still in the nursing practice, the nurse plays a professional role including caregiving. Nurses also act as advocates, communicators, and educators to their clients, in different contexts of nursing including emergency care, psychiatry, among others.

Individuals having an interest in nursing must exhibit high level of integrity and personality. To begin with, nursing involves a series of significant activities; therefore, people interested in nursing must have organizational skills. Since nursing also involves relationships between patients and nurses, the interested individuals must have the ability to develop therapeutic relationships between them and their clients. Nursing is also faced with numerous emergency events; a practitioner in this field therefore, should be capable of working effectively under pressure, as well as being in a position to address emergency events in a calm manner.

Nursing involves the optimizing of health and abilities, preventing sickness and injury, reducing the extent of suffering by diagnosing and treating human ailments. Nursing also advocates for the care of individuals and their families, as well as communities, and the broader human populations. To be involved in nursing is therefore, to experience an experience that is of the heart and soul. It weighs more than just one’s physical presence in the nursing facility. Nursing gives dedicated individuals a form of satisfaction from their giving of care to the clients, thus, improving their condition.

Nursing is also a job, a profession, just like any other professions. This is something an individual has to do for a living, by working in settings where care is given to patients; these include outpatient centers, and hospitals, among others. As the case in other professions, individuals in the nursing field receive remunerations for the services they provide. However, there is something unique about nursing. Not everyone can become a good in nursing. Many people, including me, consider the nursing profession as a call. This shows that nursing is an involving career, and therefore, requires individuals with passion for nursing. Nursing impacts patients in a special way, which they can remember all their life.

Apart from providing one with an opportunity for making a living, nursing gives one an identity. Normally, nurses are considered hardworking, high-integrity, and compassionate individuals. Therefore, nursing shapes the personality of an individual. This becomes advantageous in the individual’s life and career. As far as nursing is concerned, it is important that there be a clear understanding of the distinction between nursing, which is professional in nature, and the other nursing that is provided by other people who do not belong to the nursing profession. These two categories of nursing vary based on knowledge and clinical judgment involved, as well the code of ethics involved and personal accountability required in the nursing process. Professional nursing embraces a greater level of competence and expertise as compared to the other nursing. Nonetheless, nursing has existed over the years and will continue to influence the management of health and illness in society even in the years to come.

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The Scope of Nursing

            Nursing is diverse; therefore, different people will describe it in different ways, depending on their knowledge, and/or their experience in the field. Having a great interest in nursing, I consider nursing as both an art, and a science. This is because of the nature of the nursing process, which is core to nursing. This process employs scientific concepts, as well as concepts found in the arts field. In the practice of nursing, nurses play a major role, as these are responsible for the promotion of optimal health and prevention of sicknesses in the lifespan of their clients. They also play a professional role of caregiving, apart from acting as advocates, communicators, and educators to their clients, in different nursing contexts, including emergency care, psychiatry, among others.

Individuals interested in nursing must therefore, possess a strong personality, and integrity, to meet nursing demands. Since nursing involves a series of significant activities, those interested in it must have good organizational skills. In nursing, relationships between patients and nurses are paramount; therefore, one must have the ability to develop therapeutic relationships with patients. Numerous emergency events characterize nursing; a practitioner in this field therefore, should be capable of working effectively under pressure, as well as being in a position to address emergency events in a calm manner.

The major aim of nursing is to optimize health through disease prevention, and alleviation of suffering by diagnosing and treating human ailments. Nursing also advocates for the care of individuals and their families, as well as communities, and the broader human population. To be involved in nursing is therefore, to be part of an experience that is of the heart and soul. It weighs more than just one’s physical presence in the nursing facility. When the process of care giving by a nurse improves a patient’s health condition, the nurse experiences some sort of satisfaction and fulfillment in their work, and this makes nursing unique.

To me, nursing means adding value to my community and society as a whole. It is a chance to experience, and to be part of the scientific, and medical progress, which is life changing to many people’s health status. This is therefore, a continuous process of learning, as each day, there will be a new development, which I can be part of. Being a never-ending learning and development experience, my passion for nursing will not cease. I also consider nursing as a chance to view life from a different perspective and learn to appreciate life. It also means having a chance to experience the “miracles” in human health. Providing care to a sick person and seeing them well the next moment is satisfying.

Nursing means more than a well-paid career to me. It is a process that will also contribute to my personal development. For instance, I will become more aware of my personal health, and learn to manage my health issues appropriately. Most importantly, nursing will give me a chance to develop further my skills and experience in this field, for my own good and good of the society. Nursing also means an opportunity to live my dreams and personal ambitions. Given my passion for nursing, I will enjoy learning nursing concepts and actively participate in applying them in different settings. I am convinced that nursing does not solely depend on my academic qualifications and ability to perform the job, but also on ability to leave a mark in this profession, no matter how small. Nursing encompasses both medical science and the humanity aspect; this therefore, provides me a vast opportunity of having an influence in the nursing field.

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Personal Problem Solving Paper

                Many people develop a personal problem at some point in their life. This could be in their childhood stage or adulthood stage, while in school, or during their career life. Personal problems are normal occurrences; however, these could have detrimental repercussions on an individual, if they fail to take the right course of actions in addressing the personal problem. Therefore, addressing one’s personal problem in the right way is necessary, as it prevents the adverse effects of the problem from occurring. Individuals thus, need to prevent these negative outcomes of their personal problem by appropriately responding to early warnings of stress that is related to a personal problem (Phillips 54).

Every individual has their own story to tell, including experiences they undergo in life, as well as their different personal problems, how they addressed them, and how the problems finally shaped them. Like any other normal individual, I have also had different experiences, which have shaped me; including various past personal issues I have faced. These happen in a cycle, as in every stage of life, I have been faced by a different issue. Currently, I have to deal with a significant issue that I had never experienced before. I am supposed to make an important decision, which will highly influence my professional life, as well as personal life. The fact that I come from a country where joining the army is compulsory, I am having a problem deciding whether to join the army or not. This lack of decisiveness has devastated me lately, as I have to think a lot about this issue, weighing the advantages and disadvantages of joining the army. Several questions linger on my mind about what if I pass the medical tests and qualify to join; and what if I fail the medical tests. This scenario has without doubt cast me in a state of anxiety. Today, I have to deal with this anxiety as a personal problem, considering the degree of harm it has had on my psychological and mental well-being (Luciani 55).

The sources of my anxiety today include both external and internal forces. Some of the external forces include my perception of the army. Being in the army is not an easy task, as it requires a lot of sacrifice, commitment, and dedication. In addition, the risks involved in working in the army are numerous and vast. Therefore, it is from this perception that brings about the internal forces, which mainly comprise of fear. I therefore, fear for my future, as I have become uncertain of what will really happen. Having not made up my mind about joining the army, I lack a clear framework of what course my future will take. The main reason why this problem persists is my lack of decisiveness about the whole army thing. If I make a decision now, I will be able to paint a clear picture of my future. However, it has been hard deciding on this important aspect of my life, due to its highly sensitive nature.

            The type of anxiety I have had to deal with currently can be categorized as a life management issue as well as an emotional and mental health issue. Normally, people suffering from anxiety will feel anxious and nervous when they are faced with different problems, including tests, and when faced with an important situation that requires appropriate decision-making. Anxiety if not addressed may take a toll on an individual, resulting in distress and altering an individual’s ability to live their normal life. In my case, this anxiety has evoked a great deal of worry and tension, which I sometimes think is out of this world and highly unrealistic. Sometimes I tend to think that the reason for my anxiety is little and does not qualify to provoke such immense anxiety in me. Lately, I occasionally experience feelings of uneasiness and panic whenever the army thing crosses my mind, and it leaves me disturbed. Additionally, when these thoughts come at night, I normally have problem catching sleep. Lack of ability to remain and calm has also characterized the level of anxiety in me (Luciani 68).

                Anxiety lacks any beneficial effects; rather, it leads to negative outcomes. If anxiety in an individual advances to a level where an individual experiences constant fear and worry, this becomes crippling to the individual’s physical and psychological health, including the individual’s personal relationships and social interactions. Personally, anxiety has had different negative effects on my general well-being. Most of the effects of anxiety I have witnessed have affected my psychological and mental health, as well as my relationships with other people. However, as far as my professional life is concerned, this anxiety evokes a certain level of negative effects on my professional life as well (Luciani 82).

With regard to personal life, anxiety has made me experience emotional pain. Most of the time, I feel vulnerable and experience some sort of loss since I lack a clear plan and framework of my future events. I have failed to decide to choose whether I will be joining the army or not. This thought therefore, has always affected my mindset, making me to be in constant though, thus, causing me emotional pain. What aggravates this is the fact that time keeps moving and eventually, I will be faced with reality, which will compel me to make a decision. Whether I join the army or not, I want it to be a decision that I personally and deliberately make so that I will be responsible for the outcomes of my decision. I do not want a case where the medical tests only determine my fate, whether I will be joining the army or not. I feel I am losing grip of my friends considering my recent psychological tests, which portray high levels of my psychological violence. No one wants to associate with people who do not bring out the best in them; therefore, I am likely to fail in my social life, if this condition persists (Phillips 77).

With regard to my professional life, joining the army is a great determinant of my career life. I want to excel and have a great career. In case I decide to join the army, I will be required to undergo medical tests. These include both physical and psychological tests. Considering that my past psychological tests have registered high levels of psychological violence, this will lead me to fail the medical test, making me ineligible for army. Therefore, it is best if I address this situation while there still is time. All my life, I have never desired anxiety to be a part of me. I always aimed at being a person who can solve my problems using effective decision-making to avoid stressful situations. I am hoping that in the coming ten years, I will not experience such immense anxiety, as I will be in a position to practice my decision-making skills in cases that call for critical decisions. In case I do not deal with this, anxiety will ruin me and may lead to some irreversible effects.

                It is comforting to know that there is always a solution to every problem. In my case, the solution to my anxiety lies both with me, and with other external forces within my surrounding. I can make use of various resources inside me, and those in my environment to bring about a positive change in my situation. Personally, I need to change my perception toward joining the army, and start viewing it in a more positive way. This change in personal convictions toward joining the army can be achieved if I change and restructure my mindset, including my thought patterns. This way, I will be able to develop important decision-making on the whole situation. Being in the University, I have the opportunity of seeking advice and mentorship from the careers department. This will help me gain insightful information and guidelines that will help me in making a final decision, which will free me from all the anxiety and worries (Phillips 81).

                Despite the availability of help and solutions for my personal problem, it means a different thing for me to take the initiative of seeking this help. I have had the knowledge that I could seek advice from a mentor concerning my issue; however, different forces hold me back from taking the necessary steps. There is a feeling in me that sharing my problem with a second party is like exposing my weakness, so, I have shied from seeking help. This is a poor attitude that will be harmful in the end. In getting rid of this negative attitude, I need to change this into a positive attitude. I need to teach myself that a problem shared is a problem half solved. In addition, I need to understand that everyone faces personal problems, and not all problems can be solved solely by the individual experiencing them. This change in attitude is crucial in giving me a positive mindset in addressing my personal problem (Phillips 92).

Nothing happens when nothing is done. With this knowledge, I must come up with a course of action to address my anxiety so that I live a normal life again. Since my anxiety emanates from the aspect of whether I should join the army or not, I am going to find a mentor who will share career advise with me to help me make my decision, as, currently, I am faced with indecisiveness. However, before finding a mentor, I will change my perception toward the problem (Bryon 235). I will convince myself that problems are there to shape us and to challenge and sharpen our decision-making and problem-solving skills. Therefore, I will aim at solving this problem in the best way possible so that in future, I will look back and count this experience as one that brought out the hero in me.

Writing this problem solving paper has been of great use. It has served as the first step in my process of solving my personal problem. I have had the opportunity of writing my feelings down, and the ways through which I can handle my problem. Without doubt, this has been therapeutic in a way. I therefore, hope that the journey of my problem solving has just begun, and I am soon going to make the right decisions that will set me free from my current anxiety issues.

 

Works Cited

Bryon, Mike. “Great Answers to Tough Career Dilemmas: Test Your Aptitude, Be Inspired and

Discover Your Ideal Career.” New Jersey: Kogan Page Publishers, 2011.

Luciani, Joseph. “Self-Coaching: The Powerful Program to Beat Anxiety and Depression.” New

York: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.

Phillips, Bob. “Overcoming Anxiety and Depression: Practical Tools to Help You Deal with

Negative Emotions.” London: Harvest House Publishers, 2007.

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

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10^th, January 2012

Curriculum development mainly involves the systematic planning of what is taught in schools, and this is reflected in the content of study courses as well as programs. Curriculum development takes place in different contexts, but is a continuous process, which is also highly flexible. During the process of curriculum development, different factors come to play in determining the outcome of the process. Among the factors that affect curriculum development, some have a greater influence on the process, while others influence the process at a lower degree. The most important factor affecting curriculum development is the political factor, while the strategies used in evaluation of the process is the least factor affecting curriculum development (Iwasiw, Andrusyszyn & Goldenberg, 2009).

Apart from political factors and learning theories, other factors affecting curriculum development include needs of the population, outcomes of the process of curriculum development, the strategies used in evaluation of the process, as well as the supporting references. Political factors in this case have the greatest influence on the process of curriculum development as the other entire factors base on it. Political factors include government norms and policies regarding curriculum. Most importantly, politics influence curriculum development through funding. Private and public institutions of learning depend on funding for effective operations and learning outcomes in the facilities. Funding is highly dependent on the government of a country. In addition, curriculum processes depend on state government, as it is responsible for development of policies that affect learning institutions. This includes the approval of examination bodies and type of education system, as well as goal definitions of learning facilities (Iwasiw, Andrusyszyn & Goldenberg, 2009).

In developing curriculum, the strategies of evaluating the process have to be established. This is a minor factor affecting curriculum development as it does not directly affect the learning process in learning facilities. Once the outcomes of a curriculum have been identified, it is easier to come up with strategies to evaluate the curriculum, as evaluation is dependent on the outcomes. Besides, these strategies may be developed by internal or external players, and do not affect the learning process. Therefore, this is a subsidiary to the process as is not as influential as the political factor (Iwasiw, Andrusyszyn & Goldenberg, 2009).

Integrating theory and research is both advantageous and disadvantageous to adult students in healthcare careers. Researchers have emphasized the integration of research and theory in healthcare courses in order to strengthen the research practice. However, different criticisms have arisen on the integration of research and theory in this field, thus, advocating for the use of theory alone in the learning process. The advantages of learning theory alone instead of integrating it with theory are vast. First, research theory presents a platform for a systematic understanding of different health programs, resources, and their relationships, including their inputs and outputs. In addition, theory puts into consideration both the contextual and implementation factors of healthcare programs to (Brazil et al, 2005).

On the other hand, integrating both research and theory in the healthcare curriculum as well carries a variety of benefits to the learners. According to Brazil et al, (2005), research in healthcare promotes collaboration with other disciplines including Anthropology, Psychology, Sociology, among others. This collaboration leads to attainment of rich information; and when coupled with theory, will result in effective learning outcomes. A second benefit is that when research is integrated with theory, the learners will be exposed to important trainings in research. This especially includes the research methods, thus broadening their body of knowledge in healthcare research, unlike when they are confined to theory only in their learning process. Research in healthcare training may also expose the learners to practical situations in healthcare, which they will have to deal with during their learning process. This therefore, gives the learners a first-hand experience in handling issues relating to healthcare, a phenomenon that adequately prepares them to handle future situations in healthcare during their period of professional practice.

 

References

Brazil, K., Ozer, E., Cloutier, M., Levine, R. & Stryer, D. (2005). From theory to practice:

improving the impact of health services research. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC545971/

Iwasiw, C., Andrusyszyn, M. & Goldenberg, D. (2009). Curriculum Development in Nursing

Education. Jones & Bartlett Learning: New Jersey.

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FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BY RESEARCHERS WHEN DEFINING THE DATA REQUIRED FOR THEIR RESEARCH

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Introduction

Researchers engage in research for a variety of reasons. They mainly aim at carrying out an investigation, or enquiry into a specific phenomenon that lacks a clear understanding. Additionally, research serves to increase the knowledge of researchers and the public in a particular field or phenomenon. In order to obtain quality and reliable information in a research, the involved researchers must identify and make use of the appropriate methods for data collection and data analysis during the research process. It is also important that the researchers conduct the research in the best way to ensure that the investigated research question leads to data findings that contribute to the knowledge in the investigated field. Basing on two empirical studies, this paper therefore, investigates various factors, which must be considered by researchers in their definition of data that is required for their research.

A Comparison of Objectives of the Two Studies

            The reference point in explaining the facts of this essay bases on two empirical studies conducted in different areas. One study was conducted in Vietnam among injection drug users in two districts, to compare the prevalence of HIV and other associated risks among the drug users in the two different districts (Bergenstrom et al, 2008). Another study was conducted in the USA, involving different HVC treatment programs for HVC positive clients. This study however, studied two categories of these treatment programs, including the HVC drug free programs and the HVC MMTPs programs (Astone-Twerell et al, 2006).

            The two studies were conducted for different reasons, thus, the difference in their objectives. The study among the injection drug users in Vietnam was conducted with the purpose of establishing the prevalence of drug overdose in the region, including the main reasons behind this phenomenon. The additional voluntary HIV testing was aimed at helping to get more information about the relationship between drug use, age, and HIV prevalence. Therefore, the study samples were studied differently to establish and assess the prevalence rate, as well as the characteristics that are associated with non-fatal drug overdose among the injection drug users in the two districts of North Vietnam (Bergenstrom et al, 2008).

On the other hand, the second study aimed at establishing the range of Hepatitis C Virus services, which are provided to HVC positive clients by treatment programs. In both studies, the research was based on drug use and the relationship with a specific disease. While the Vietnam study compares the injection drug users and the prevalence of HIV, the second study in America seeks to determine the variety of treatment services provided to HVC positive clients by the different treatment programs in the USA (Astone-Twerell et al, 2006: Bergenstrom et al, 2008).

A Comparison of the Research Designs of both Studies

There are varieties of study designs that can be used in both qualitative and quantitative researches. These vary with regard to whether the study is qualitative or quantitative in nature. Unlike the quantitative research, for qualitative research, the distinctions between the study designs employed are not perfectly clear (Charoenruk, n.d). In some qualitative studies, it is hard to tell if the study employs a longitudinal research design, or whether it uses the case study design. Any type of research must be purposeful as it aims at obtaining an outcome. Jackson (2008) argues that the nature of the outcome of research is highly dependent on the type of research design a study adopts. Researchers must therefore, be very careful when choosing the type of research design for their research as this highly influences the reliability of their findings. Nonetheless, the study designs of these two researches are different, owing to the varying nature of the researches.

When choosing an appropriate research design, a researcher must first, determine the research paradigm for their study.  This is the framework that gives guidance on how the research process will be conducted, based on the knowledge of the particular field of study and the research context. This also bases on the worldviews of the researcher, and assumptions about the philosophies of other people, as most researches involve interactions with different people. The two empirical studies addressed in this essay fall within the same discipline, which is the health discipline. However, these have used different research designs, since they do not address a perfectly similar issue, even though there is a significant relationship between these two studies.  In the study conducted among injection drug users in Vietnam, the research was a community-based-cross-sectional survey among the active injection drug users. 20 trained current and former drug-using peer outreach workers recruited the drug users. The main method used to recruit the participants was the snowballing method. This study was cross-sectional, as it involved the study of two districts, namely the Tu Son and Bac Ninh districts. Therefore, the research findings in either of the districts would be compared to those of the other district, then deductions made about the comparison and analysis of the research findings in both districts. Evidently, cross-sectional survey research involves a structured observation at a single point in time, and is inclusive of content analysis on a sample of documents (Bergenstrom et al, 2008).

In the second study on the HVC treatment programs in the USA, data collection fell in the comparative survey research design. Telephone interviews were used from the initial stages of the research to the final stages. This includes the screening stage, to the real research, and the final stages of research. After the screening of different programs for eligibility, the qualifying programs were allowed to take part in the study. The participating programs were subjected to a telephone interview that lasted 3 hours, in which they were asked detailed questions about their program’s characteristics, and the number, and nature of clients they were involved with in their program. Normally, in a comparative research design, a survey research is carried out on two or more cases, with the purpose of obtaining and revealing crucial information about the cases for later comparison (Astone-Twerell et al, 2006).

A Comparison of the Methodologies of both Studies

            A research methodology is the overall approach of the entire research process. This approach is partly determined by the research problem. In addition, the researcher’s assumptions in the research, their definition and perception of the research problem also highly influence the approach they undertake in their research process. This also influences the methods the researcher will use to collect research data. In choosing the research methodology, it is worth noting that there is a great difference between research design and research method. In addition, the research methods of quantitative type of research vary from the research methods in the qualitative type of research (Fitzpatrick, & Wallace, 2005: Charoenruk, n.d).

The two researches are qualitative in nature. Therefore, the involved researchers put an emphasis on the themes of their studies, as well as the different meanings and experiences their research phenomenon bore. In the cross-sectional study among drug-users in Vietnam, the researchers made use of questionnaire survey as a major method of data collection in the research process. In total, the research involved three hundred and nine participants, who were all injection drug users. All these were involved in face-to-face interviews. The questionnaires had question involving the characteristics of the population, history of drug use, how the participants acquired syringes and needles used for drug injections, the sexual behaviour of the participants, their medical history, and history of drug overdose. As a way of gathering more supporting evidence and data, the cross-sectional research included a voluntary HIV test, which was performed on participants by trained counsellors (Bergenstrom et al, 2008). This was an appropriate approach as normally, cross-sectional research uses questionnaires, as a data collection methodology. In this case, this the interviewers administered questionnaires to the respondents. Additionally, cross-sectional studies use biological samples and diagnostic tests to supplement the information obtained from the questionnaires. In this study, the respondents were involved in a voluntary HIV testing exercise (Bryman 2012).

In the second study conducted in the USA, the participants in the study included drug treatment programs across the different states of the USA; who were selected randomly. The method used in this study was telephone interviews, which helped in the screening of the participants, who included groups of drug treatment programs. These programs’ information and contacts were obtained from the Inventory of Substance Abuse Treatment of the year 2000.  Screening the programs was important to establish if they were eligible to be considered for the research, as the study was highly dependent on the programs for an effective outcome. The screening survey over the telephone involved a number of questions, which were directed to the manager of the program. These questions sought to obtain information regarding eligibility, the program’s basic information about the organizational characteristics and operations, as well as the HVC services, which the program provided for their clients. The questions in the telephone interview also sought detailed information about the programs’ medical services; whether the services related to HVC were on-site, or referral. In addition, the program was to specify the amount of HVC services it offered to clients, the number of clients to whom these services were offered, as well as  the number of those clients who did not maintain consistency in the HVC treatment. In order to ensure quality data, the telephone interviews were performed by a variety of staff members, who handled different areas of the interview, which related to their expertise (Astone-Twerell et al, 2006).

Reasons why one of the two Studies Used Cross-Section Design

            In the two studies, the research design varied because of the nature of the study, as well as the objectives of the study. The research strategy highly influences the choice of research design for research process. Since the two studies had different study strategies, it is more likely that their research designs would as well vary. As seen earlier, the Vietnamese study employed a cross-sectional research design, while the study conducted in the USA, employed a comparative research design. The Vietnamese study employed the cross-section study design because of the nature of the study. In this study, two study populations were involved. These were studied at a single point in line, and the study focused on gathering information about similar components. On the other hand, the research study in the USA was conducted among different HVC treatment programs. These were categorized into two main categories, including the drug-free HVC treatment programs, and those HVC treatment programs that used drugs (Astone-Twerell et al, 2006: Bergenstrom et al, 2008).

Meaning of a Cross-Sectional Design

            The cross-sectional design is employed in the cross-sectional types of studies. In this kind of study, the design of the research purposes to address a particular section of the study population at a point in time (“Cross-Sectional Surveys”). In this case, the sample chosen is appropriately selected and its composition is a representative of that in the total population. This can therefore, be a simple random sample, a cluster sample, stratified, or multi-stage sample. In addition to the nature of sampling involved, this design also comprises pre-defined measurements and ascertainment. In most cases, these include survey questions and questionnaires (Thisted 2006). In addition, the sample in the research is estimated in relation to its spread, and association, and the selected sample population can still be estimated. Additionally, the structure of a cross-sectional study varies from that of other types of research. For instance, in this research design, the study population may comprise two sets of people; those affected by the disease, and those not affected by the disease. The research on these two groups of people therefore seeks to establish the level and discrepancies of the risk factors between these two groups of people. Overall, the cross-sectional design is meant for a research type where the objective is to come up with inferences about the influence of one or more variables on an outcome variable (Vaus 2001).

Why both Studies did not use the Cross-Sectional Design

            Different studies employ different research designs and methodology, according to their nature and objectives. Among the two empirical studies, one study employed the cross-sectional design, while the other employed the longitudinal research design. Considering the objectives and the different natures of these studies, it was likely that the research designs used would vary. In the Vietnamese study conducted among the injection drug users, the study employed a cross-sectional design, because the researchers had the objective of studying similar elements or variables in different populations. The fact that they researched on the rate of prevalence and the traits associated with non-fatal drug overdose among the drug users in two different Vietnamese districts compelled them to use the cross-sectional research design (Bergenstrom et al, 2008). On the other hand, the research involving HCV treatment programs in the USA could not employ the cross-sectional design, since the researchers were interested in studying various variables within the same population. This is why they used the 233 HVC treatment programs, as compared to the Vietnamese study where two populations, one of 71 000 and another one of 114, 825, were used to research on similar variables (Astone-Twerell et al, 2006).

Actually, cross-sectional surveys are unsuitable for investigating causal relationships. Therefore, the research involving the HVC treatment programs in the USA could not employ the cross-sectional research design since the variables under this study were highly linked to causal factors. Cross-sectional designs are best suited for research that investigates prevalent incidences. The USA study was based on incident cases, therefore, could not qualify for a cross-sectional design. On the other hand, the study in Vietnam involving the injection drug users was more suitable for the use of cross-sectional design, which is why the researchers chose to make it a cross-sectional study. In this study, the researchers aimed at determining the prevalence level of HIV among the drug users in the two Vietnamese districts. Since the research was based on a prevalence case, it qualified for a cross-sectional design (Bergenstrom et al, 2008).

A Comparison of the Research Samples in the two Studies

In order for a researcher to obtain a sample for their research from the source population, it is important that they identify the sample design they will use in their research. A sample design is the method a researcher uses in the process of selecting the sampling units from the population. There are different sample designs a researcher might choose from, depending on the nature of their research problem. However, a researcher can choose a sample through judgement or through convenience. When using judgement, the researcher selects a sample design they think is balanced or is a representative sample. This can be through their experiences or general knowledge. On the other hand, when choosing a sample using convenience, the researcher uses the most convenient ways at their disposal, who could be volunteers (“Cross-Sectional Surveys”).

In the two empirical studies, the researchers employed different sample designs to select their sampling units. In the USA, study among the HVC treatment programs, the researchers used judgement in the selection of their sampling units. Here, 614 programs were initially selected, of which, 416 were drug free, with 188 MMTPs. These were screened for eligibility in 2001, and were involved in the research until 2003. However, by the end of 2003, after the data collection, 45 programs fell out of eligibility, as they could no longer participate in the research, since the number of their clients under treatment for substance abuse had dropped by more than half. Additionally, 90 programs could not be reached for further research. Therefore, the study used the remaining 479 programs comprised the sampling frame (Astone-Twerell et al, 2006).

Most of the extensive survey was completed with 291 programs only. The rest could not participate in the more extensive research due to lack of time and staff who would commit to the whole research process. Of the 291 programs, only 256 programs managed to complete the medical services section of the research. However, only 233 programs had at least one HCV positive client in the past year. Of the 233 programs, 139 were drug free, the rest were 94 MMTPs. Therefore, the study sample for this research constituted 233 programs. An analysis of these programs sought to establish any differences between programs that had at least one HVC positive client in the past year and those that did not have. Results showed that the categories differed significantly with the programs in the sampling frame. However, the two categories in the sampling frame did not register vast differences in relation to the programs’ proportion. These two categories of programs did not also differ much with regard to organizational characteristics, operations, private-for-profit ownership, and their membership in a network of programs (Astone-Twerell et al, 2006).

In the study of HIV prevalence among the IDU’s in Vietnam, the researchers used convenience to select their sampling units. Here, the eligible participants comprised individuals aged above 18 and less than 45. These were also required to have used injection drugs within the past six months, prior to the study.  These were selected by 20 of the former local drug-users, who had training in the field of peer-outreach. The study had two study districts that would be involved in the study. These included the Bac Ninh Township, which had a population of 71 000; and the Tu Son district, with a population of 114, 825. The Bac Ninh district is an urban setting, while Tu Son is a peri-urban district. Most injection drug users in these districts were men. Therefore, the research sample of this Vietnamese research comprised more men and few women (Bergenstrom et al, 2008).

When selecting a sampling unit, it is advisable that researchers use random sampling because this method uses chance to determine those who will be part of the sample. Therefore, this removes any possibility of bias in the selection of samples. In the other sample designs of convenience and judgement, the sample selection is more likely to be faced with selection bias, as the decision of who to include in the sample solely lies with the researcher. This therefore, makes the sample unit to be unrepresentative, since some people will be more likely to be part of the sample, while others will be locked out deliberately. Whichever the case, a researcher must ensure that the sampling unit they choose is representative and devoid of selection bias (Delgado-Rodriquez & Llorca 2004).

Aspects of Ethics and Validity in the two Studies

The aspect of ethics and validity in research is a paramount in ensuring quality research findings. Both studies considered validity and ethics as a way of enhancing the quality and reliability of their research results. The first step of ethics in research is gaining approval of the research by the concerned body of authority (“The British Psychological Society” 2010). The study involving HVC programs in the United States sought approval of their research before beginning the process. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the National Development and Research Institutes, Inc. granted this approval to them. After the interviewers described the purpose of the research to participants, the interviewers went ahead to assure them that the research was totally voluntary, therefore, no participant was coerced to be part of the study (Astone-Twerell et al, 2006). Additionally, confidentiality is an important ethical factor a research body must consider during their research process (Golafshani 2003).  With regard to confidentiality, the interviewers assured the participants that any information submitted would be kept as confidential as possible, for privacy reasons (Astone-Twerell et al, 2006).

In the other Vietnam study among injection drug users, ethics as well as validity was highly upheld. This is evident in the study’s inclusion criteria used. The eligible injection drug users for this study were those aged between 18 and 45 years, and who had used the drugs for the past six months. After their selection, these injection drug users were expected to sign the written consent forms. This was an ethical way of ensuring that the chosen participants were familiar with the research process and expectations, and participated in the research in their own free will. In the consent forms, there was intensive information regarding the purpose and objectives of the research process. The potential risks, as well as benefits of the study were also addressed in the informed consent forms. This way, the participants would make an informed decision of whether to participate in the research process or not, basing on their evaluation of the risks and benefits of the research process. This whole process was treated as important and involved training of the participants on the study site by the Vietnamese interviewers, who were qualified and experienced in the field (Bergenstrom et al, 2008).

According to Stern and Elliott (1997), the ethical requirements of research are meant to ensure that the research subjects are treated with dignity and respect, and not exploited by the researchers. This is because of the important role they play in the research process, which enhances social good. In order to uphold ethics, a research must be valuable. This means the research findings should be used to bring about improvements in the study field (Ezekiel, Wendler & Grady 2000: Thanasegaran 2009).

Stanley, Sieber, and Melton (1996), note that the aspect of validity is paramount to research, as it directly relates with the ethics of the research. A valid research upholds research ethics, while a research with low validity is to some extent unethical. A research that registers high validity is one that is conducted in a way that is methodologically rigorous to produce valid results. Therefore, to attain this validity, a researcher must ensure that the research methods are valid and can be applied practically (Kimmel 1988). In addition, the objectives of the research must be clear, having been designed using appropriate principles. If the research is clinical and compares different therapies, honesty must be highly upheld for valid results (Edwards, Lund & Gibson 2008). This is the case of the study involving HVC treatment programs in the USA. This study therefore, required a high level of honesty for valid results, since it was comparing two types of treatment. Nonetheless, if research is invalid, this becomes a waste of time and resources to both the researcher and funding bodies, as well as the respondents. Invalid research is also incapable of knowledge generation in the related field, and is guilty of exposing its research subjects to vain risks. This is why researchers must be extra careful to produce a valid research (Edwards, Lund & Gibson 2008).

Characteristics of a Good Social Research

            According to Farooq, et al, (2011), a good social research is attainable if a researcher adopts the right methodological approach. This kind of research has methodological rigour. This means the research is appropriate and fits in its context. Additionally, it bears the intellectual soundness in its design, and makes a systematic application of its methodology. For a researcher to come up with this sort of social research, they must be careful, detailed, and employ an exacting approach in their study. This will highly influence the research data and lead to the achievement of great research outcomes. However, the characteristics of a good social research will vary depending on the philosophical assumptions on which the research bases on. Nonetheless, the type of research design a researcher chooses will greatly affect the quality of the research. Therefore, the research design of a good social research is sound and allows for a greater level of flexibility of the research. This is important as it gives the research an opportunity and allowance for accommodating newer developments relevant to the research topic, which the researcher can delve in, provided they have sufficient time (Babbie 2010).

Conclusion

            This essay has identified the various fundamental factors that researchers need to identify and consider when defining the data required for the research, as well as in all the different levels of the research process. This is essential as it guarantees great research outcomes as expected by the researcher. A research strategy, including research objectives, design, methodology, ethics and reliability must be given an upper hand, as these influence the research data, and how the researcher manipulates it. The researcher must also be careful to ensure that the data they define does not turn out to be contradictory to other people’s common knowledge in the specific field. The researcher must also be careful to ensure that the research data and results they obtain do not resemble other people’s past works, as this might be confusing to the public.

 

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