Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

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Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

Introduction

Female genital cutting or mutilation is a painful and an invasive surgical procedure, often performed without sedative on young girls before puberty. Each year, estimates reveal that from about 100 to 140 million women in the world have gone through the process of circumcision. On average, about four girls undergo mutilation in every minute. In the process of female genital cutting, the prepuce is removed and the clitoris partially or wholly removed. In some traditions, the process is more invasive as the labia minora is surgically removed. The labia mijora is sewn together covering the vagina and the urethra. This process leaves a small opening for the passage of menstrual fluid and urine. Female genital cutting has been a social custom in Northern Africa for millennia. However, a majority of people associate the operation with the Islam religion. In reality, it is a social custom practiced by many people from different regions of the world. Female genital cutting is a social process that brings about negative consequences in the society. This and many other social issues such as abortion and prostitution should not be allowed in society.

Criticism of female genital mutilation (FGM)

Although there are strict laws established to fight against such operations as abortion and female genital cutting, these evil practices are still evident in some parts of the world. There are no customs and traditions that have power over the individuals’ lives. This argument is based on the fact that most of communities that who practice female genital cutting hold that they do so in respect to their traditional culture. Female genital mutilation causes injury to the victims, as well as, the society in which the victim lives. The World Health Organization defines the procedure as the damage to the female genitals for non-medical reasons. The process in most cases is undertaken by an elderly woman without medical training. Antiseptic treatment and anesthetics are not involved in the procedure. Rather, there is the use of basic tools such scissors, knives, scalpels and razor blades. To tighten the genitals and stop the bleeding, a mixture of herbs or iodine is applied on the wound. Majority of cases of female genital cutting is in 28 African countries. There are, however, some countries where the prevalence rates are as high as 98%. These include countries such as Somalia, Ethiopia, Egypt and Sudan. In other states such as Togo, Nigeria, Kenya, and Senegal, the levels may vary between 20-50 percent. This shows how disrespect for girls and women is spread. It is more precise to view FGM as an operation associated with particular ethnic groups, rather than a whole country. Whatever the case, female genital cutting should not allowed in society.

It is a shame to watch people, who are aware of the negative implications of FGM, perform such operations on young girls and women. The implications of female genital cutting are severe and consist of both temporary and long-term implications. These implications are the reason why the female genital cutting should be stopped in society. Additionally, it is shameful for the justifications that people give regarding female circumcision. The roots of FGM are numerous and complex. It is not easy to establish where and when the tradition of female genital damage originated. People give multiple justifications, which reflect on the historical and ideological state of the community in which it has developed. The reasons that people cite for FGM relate to power inequalities, tradition, and the resulting conformity of women to the dictates of their societies. Some of the justifications given for FGM, and that have no logical standings and explanations include the following.

Some societies that practice female genital cutting hold that they practice FGM as a requirement of the customs and traditions of the society. This thinking is so primitive and immature. Times have passed when people have stopped following the customs and traditions that are outdated and that bring harm to societal members and society as a whole. Traditional culture has evolved with the advancement in science and technology and has taken a new direction. There is no reason to believe that female genital marring is a requirement of any traditional customs as it is only based on the beliefs of the people in the specific society. It is surprising that even with high levels of education; people still practice female genital defacement. It is time that individuals should think of this operation as inhumane and focus on restructuring the traditions that do not add value to the life of an individual.

Some traditions and customs are so insensitive and should be eradicated in the society. Instead of focusing on promoting such operations in society, people should focus on ways, to improve their lives in all aspects including the social, economic, as well as, the political aspects of society. Traditions that should be maintained should be those that promote the welfare of the entire society, as well as, those that guarantee the well-being of the future generations. What matters in life is the health and the general welfare of the members of society. Any activity of any nature that interferes with the social well-being of people is though of as evil and does not only affect the individual member and relatives, but also the entire society. Therefore, female genital damage should be history in society.

Another reason for female genital mutilation has to do with religion. This is a mistaken belief that female circumcision is a religious requirement. There is no single religion that advocates for female genital injury. The supernatural being protects people from harm and does not impose laws or rules that inflict pain and suffering on human beings. Therefore, those that state that female genital marring is a requirement of religion have no foundation for their arguments. Probably, they hold these beliefs because they have heard other people in society say that. Additionally, they may have been influenced by people who matter most in their lives to hold these beliefs. Just as the issue of custom and traditions, individuals who base their arguments of female genital cutting on religious beliefs are still living in the primitive and barbaric times.

One of the reasons for female circumcision that is widely spread is the notion of preservation of virginity and chastity. Although virginity has value in a number of societies especially for the bride, it is important to consider that this is not the case in many modern societies as it has no price. The exposure from media, as well as, peer pressure makes young women engage in sexual activities. This means that getting women and girls who are virgins is a challenge. The societies that hold that by the operation of female genital cutting will preserve virginity of women do not reflect on the pain involved and injury imposed on victims. This is a sign of selfishness. The costs of operations in terms of the negative effects outweigh the benefits, which in this case is virginity.

Another justification given for female genital damage is the social approval or acceptance, especially for marriage unions. Does this mean that all women in successful marriage unions have gone through the process of female genital mutilation? What about those who earn a lot of respect from their husbands, are they all circumcised? The idea of social acceptance as the reason for female genital maiming is unreasonable and only acts as a scapegoat. No one would expect such an answer when he or she asks another what reason justifies the operation of female genital mutilation. This is just a minor reason that does not elaborate on the justification for FGM.

Hygiene and cleanliness is another reason behind the futile process of female genital mutilation. Do the people that give this reason for female genital cutting know the meaning of hygiene and cleanliness? Or may be if they do, their meaning might be different from that which is known and accepted by the other people. The operation of female genital defacement involves the use of apparatus that are not sterilized. This implies that there is a risk by the victim to be infected with illnesses that affect their health. In the real sense, it is ironical to state that the operation is intended for hygiene and cleanliness while those who do it do not use clean apparatus. Does it mean that women and girls who have not gone through the operation are not clean? In other words, the idea of hygiene and cleanliness as the reason for female genital disfigurement is unrealistic.

Another justification for female genital injury is that it increases sexual pleasure for men. Again, this reason is exceedingly insensitive as it does not consider both genders. In a marriage union, sexual intercourse should satisfy the needs of both partners. Men are not the only parties in a marriage association. Increasing sexual pleasure for one party at the cost of pain and injury of another party’s genital is insensitive and should never be allowed.

As argued by societies that practice female genital marring, the operation achieves family honor. Family honor in this case refers to respect from family members of societies that practice female genital cutting. Family honor at the cost of pain or even death? In addition, does it mean that family respect does not exist in families that do not practice FGM? Just like all the above reasons, it is unreasonable to argue that one earns family honor after going through the operation of female genital cutting.

There are people in societies that argue that the operation of female genital injury makes an individual have a sense of being a member of a group, as well as, avoiding the fear of social segregation or exclusion by members of the group. This reason is only applicable to those that belong to societies that practice female genital injury. This proposition is held by women that go through the operation of female genital marring to honor the requirement of their societies. The acceptance of female genital damage by women in society makes it easy for society to undertake the process. It is despicable that even the educated men and women encourage their daughters to go through female genital defacement despite the severe consequences. Education plays a significant role in society as it enables individuals be able to reason logically and act responsibly. Therefore, for those educated people that support FGM, education has not helped them at all. Mass education has been and continues to be offered by such institutions that are against FGM as the nongovernmental organizations. They educate the public on the temporary and lasting consequences of female genital cutting. Despite their efforts in eradicating the operation in some societies, there are still communities that continue to practice this. For any action to be undertaken, people in society are responsible and should take part. This means that even if the public in societies that promote FGM are educated and do not take into account what is taught, there is no change that will occur. It is a shame that some people in the society are still living in the old times. In the real sense, they are living in the modern world, but they practice activities of the old times, making them appear as if they are living in the primitive world.

A number of people in society hold that the operation of female genital mutilation enhances fertility. Fertility in what sense? Has biology proven that circumcision in women increases fertility? In fact, to some extent the process of female genital damage may cause infertility. FGM as a process causes damage to the female genitals, which may, in turn, lead to complications during child birth. Therefore, the connection of enhancement of fertility and female genital damage is unreal.

Female genital mutilation has both immediate and enduring effects on women and girls and should be discouraged. Strict laws should be instilled to fight against those who promote the practice as it causes harm to individuals (girls and women). It is against the rights of women. This is because the procedure involves procedures that intentionally injure or alter female genitals for non-medical reasons. The operation of female circumcision has no health benefits for women and girls. The procedures involved can cause severe problems such as bleeding and complications especially in urinating and during child births and can cause newborn deaths. It is shameful as in most cases the procedure is carried on young girls between infancy and 15 years of age. Although FGM is globally recognized as a breach of the human rights of women and girls, some societies still perform this invasive operation.

The effects of female genital injury should give societies a reason to advocate for a stop of the action. It is disgraceful that people in societies that practice FGM see the negative implications, yet they do not take any actions to stop it in society. The consequences of female genital cutting are brutal and depend on the degree of injury or mutilation. The short-term health complications of FGM include severe pain and shock. The procedure of female genital mutilation is painful as there is no use of anesthetics. The severe pain may cause shock to the victim, which in the long-run may cause trauma for the individual. FGM also can cause infection. The procedure of FGM, undertaken by women without medical training involves the use of unsterilized objects that can cause infections to victims of female genital injury. In addition, there are cases where the same apparatus are used for multiple victims, which increase the risks for contraction of infections and illnesses. Are these reasons not enough to stop female circumcision? For people that observe these consequences and continue to support FGM, there must be something wrong with them.

FGM also causes urine retention due to blockage of the urethra in women and girls. This condition refers to the inability to voluntarily void urine and can be acute or chronic. The inability to empty urine from one’s bladder is a severe condition that brings discomfort to the victim and affects other muscles. This causes injury to the adjacent tissues. Can one stand his or her daughter developing such complications in the name of following society’s requirements? This is unrealistic. Female genital damage can cause immediate fatal hemorrhaging. As the people that undertake the procedure do not have the necessary medical training, the procedure can be fatal due to excessive bleeding. Again, the question raised here is, can parents stand the procedure done on their girls if they have lost a daughter before due to female genital marring? It is not surprising that one would find such, and when asked, the parents are likely to justify their decision, which mostly base on the justifications discussed earlier. The short-term implications of FGM should be enough reasons to stop female genital injury.

In addition, there are long-term implications of FGM that should make societies think twice on continuing the practice of FGM. One of the most common long-standing implications of female circumcision is extensive injury of the external reproductive system. Mutilation of genitals involves removing partially or completely the genital organs of the female, and this could lead to total damage of the external reproductive system. Destruction of the reproductive systems may cause other implications, which, in turn, affect the life of the individual especially health wise and socially. It is shameful that people observe these severe consequences, and yet do nothing to stop female genital damage. Short-term infections of female genital cutting may cause infections to the uterus, vagina, and the pelvis. This can lead to infertility of the victim. The inability of a woman to have children is perceived as a curse by people in society. The same society that subjects the individual to female genital injury is the one that perceives infertility (which may be caused by FGM) as a curse. This of course seems funny. As mentioned earlier, one of the justifications given for female genital mutilation is that it increases fertility. In this case, therefore, does female genital mutilation increase fertility or does it lead to infertility? Can destruction of the organs of the reproductive system increase fertility?

Female genital cutting leads to cysts and neuromas, as well as, increased risk of vesico vaginal fistula, which affect the wellbeing of the victim. For a society to be productive, it must comprise of healthy people. Societies that practice FGM need to look at the operation from a different approach. That is in terms of the implications on the larger society. The process causes complications in pregnancy and childbirth. These complications may lead to the death of the infant, as well as, the death of the mother. In this case, therefore, what need is there for societies to subject their girls and women to female genital injury and lack children in society? FGM also creates sexual dysfunctions for women and brings difficulties in menstruation. Finally, because of shock and trauma that girls and women experience during female genital damage, there is the risk of psychological damage for the victim. Psychological destruction ranges from anxiety to severe depression and psychosomatic illnesses. These reasons are enough to think twice on female genital cutting.

Conclusion

Most women believe that female genital damage is indispensable to ensure approval and acceptance by their community. However, they are not aware that the practice is not universal. They choose to undergo this process in the name of gaining societal acceptance. This reason does not justify their acceptance. Therefore, female genital damage must be eradicated in society as there are no health benefits, but only harm. Laws against FGM exist in some societies, which make it unlawful to practice female genital damage on women and girls. They also prohibit taking girls for FGM operations in other countries that the procedure is legal. The laws induce a penalty or a fine on those who practice FGM on girls and women. In countries such as the U.K., the Female Genital Mutilation Act that came into effect in 2004 imposes a penalty of up to 14 years in prison. Other societies should emulate the U.K. to ensure that FGM is eradicated in society. FGM is unlawful and should not be allowed at all, no matter the justifications. All justifications are unreasonable.

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Depository Insurance Funds

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Depository Insurance Funds

Depository insurance systems have been increasing rapidly in the developing world. However, this does not imply that establishing and operating an effective and efficient depository fund system involves straight forward tasks. In fact, they may create some problems as illustrated by FDIC and other depository funds. The problem created by the FDIC or any other depository insurance is the deregulation of finance. In addition, it creates high risks to loan associations that are protected by other agencies. Depository insurance makes interests rates become volatile and cuts premiums for banks that are considered to be well capitalized. The FDCI led to a decline in the net assets to a negative especially during the 2009 financial crisis as the institution was underwater. It creates failure of foresight although it may succeed in cutting off panics and suppresses efficient withdrawals while inducing excessive risk taking.

The association between risk and return is an essential relation, which affects anticipated rates of return on every investment. This characteristic is featured as being direct or positive in that if higher levels of risk related to a particular asset investment are expected, then higher returns are needed to compensate for the anticipated higher risk. On the other hand, if an asset investment has moderately lower levels of risk then investors are likely to get satisfied with lower returns. This relationship holds for business managers and individual investors. As returns on investments represent the level of risk engaged with the investment, then investors need to be able to establish returns appropriate for A specified degree of risk. Therefore, measuring the risk is essential before making any investments. This relationship can be used to explain why there have been depository fund failures along with bailouts in the past decades. As mentioned, measuring the risk involved in an investment is essential before the real investment is carried on. This is something that was not considered by investors during the earlier times, therefore, leading to failures and bailouts of depository funds. After assessing the risk, the price is set for determining the returns to be expected by investors. There are ways through which the depository funds would remain solvent. One of these ways is through mergers between them to strengthen the funds. Another policy is assessing the risk and return relationship to decide on whether or not to invest. Additionally, there should be assurance of financing from banks and governments and carelessness and laxity management on both the depositor and the banker should be eradicated if the desired objective is to be achieved. These would help the depository funds to remain solvent. Again, this would ensure stability in the financial sector not only on FDIC, but also of other significant depository funds and change the negativities associated with failures of depository funds.

Whether insurance funds benefit or harm a country, depends on how well it is administered and designed. The problems created by FDIC have made many to believe that an alternative to this depository fund is to not have any. This would have significant effects on the nation’s banking sector and the economy as a whole. This is well explained using the surplus and deficit units in finance. Lack of the systems implies that there are inefficient withdrawals and bank runs predicated on coordination failures. Additionally, it will be difficult for the country to establish equilibrium between surplus and deficit units. Surplus units refer to businesses, individuals, or governments who have unspent funds and are willing to lend. On the other hand, deficit units refer to these stakeholders interested in borrowing funds as they have spending plans that exceed their levels of incomes. This has a negative implication on the country’s overall economy. Without depository funds, customers would be worried that banking institutions might fail and, therefore, take up their money.

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Entomophagy

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Entomophagy

The relationship that exists between humans and insects can be explained through entomophagy. Gordon sees a recent and dramatic shift in the way insects are depicted through the media, specifically from a focus on survival or taboo towards an emphasis on spectacle and entertainment. These are explained through the features of insects and human responses to them, which are involved in this shift. Negative perceptions of humans of insects are culturally and historically associated with plagues, pests, squalor, and disease. Many insects have been considered repulsive or dirty and condemned as careers of various diseases for a long period of time. Recently, there has been a transformation on individuals’ perceptions of insect has changed. This is evident in the spectacle representation of insects as human food in literary genres and popular media.

It is essential to understand the distinction between insect eating for entertainment and insect eating for survival. The two functions may be combined as is the case with Aztec culture. Additionally, there are alimentary practices in some cultures that involve the role of insects in ritual, nutrition, and diet. This, therefore, brings out entomophagy as a spectacular act and gustatory experience. The experience of consumption of insects is rich in different representations and a broad range of cultural production. Insects, whether menu items or pests carry meaning. The consumption of insects involves convention and communication, ritual or rhetoric. This varies from one culture to another. This implies that influences from culture dictate the reactions to depictions of entomophagy on screen or in text.

Religious influences also have influences on how humans perceive insects. For instance, people do not consume insects condoned in holy books. Audiences take part in vicarious pleasure and passive viewing of spectacle. This implies that insect eating images are only mere images in representational media because a majority of people are not engaged in actual entomophage food ways. On the other hand, where insect eating is attached to survival, individuals depend on them for subsistence. Entomophagy is common, and there are times when when insects are portrayed as scary and harmful creatures in popular media, making individuals have negative perceptions of insects. In most media, entomophagy is represented both as a tactic for survival and spectacular in a fictional, controlled environment. Online reports and television sensationalize insect consumption and place much focus on nontraditional aspects of consumption. There is a lot of ignorance and fear surrounding insects and insect consumptions, which make individuals have negative perceptions of insects. However, the fear is reduced from the assurance from entomologists who argue that there is no harm of consuming insects. This works best especially for individuals who consume insects unknowingly. This is what is referred to as unintentional entomophagy. In fact, they argue that insects are a source of protein; and, therefore, nutritious for them.

Cooking shows awaken people’s desires and allay fears as they provide a spectacle of a dual nature. This is because edible insects are depicted as unusual delicacies. Entomophagy is common in current literature and has changed people’s perceptions of insects. People have stopped perceiving insects as harmful and scary, rather they see them a form of delicacy. Apart from having the nutrition addition property, insects have other reputed qualities including intoxicating and hallucinogenic properties of worms when eaten from the bottom of a tequila bottle. Other insects are used medicinally. These and the above discussed features of insects have a positive influence on individuals’ perceptions.

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Effects of substance abuse on prisoners in Austin, Texas

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Abstract

In the United States, Texas has been noted to have the highest prison population. It is estimated that the minimum number of residents in Texas who are under the criminal justice supervision is about 740,905 (Texas Statistical Report, 2012). This is a very high number when compared to that of other States such as Washington D.C, which is at 571,641. This has to do with the fact that prisons in Texas are many. The high levels of prisoners in Austin-Texas are not a big issue than the challenges experienced by prisoners. The problems arise due to factors such as sexual and substance abuse within prisons. There is a high rate in consumption of drugs by inmates in prisons, which impact negatively on their health, and in the extreme cases lead to death. Substance abuse in Austin prisons is not a new trend, and it requires maximum attention, as the effects on the inmates are severe. Prisons are places meant to rehabilitate and reform the inmates, rather than to destroy them, in one way or the other.

Introduction

There has been an increasing rate of substance abuse in Austin prisons. Substance abuse refers to a pattern of harmful and injurious use of drugs for mood altering purposes. In other words, it is the consumption of illicit drugs for purposes meant to interfere with the normal mental condition of an individual (Chang, 2010). Although there has been treatment for drug abusers since the 1970s, this has not changed the fact of drug abuse in prisons. Scientific research shows that this treatment can help many victims change their behaviors and attitudes towards drug abuse (Stover and Michels, 2010). There are various reasons associated with drug abuse in prisons. These factors stem from the relationship that exists between crime and drug abuse, which is widely known. Drug abuse is implicated in three kinds of offences related to drug. That is, offences related directly to drug abuse such as theft to get money for drugs, offences defined by drug sale or possession, and offences related to a way of life that disposes an individual (substance abuser) to engage in unlawful activities. This may take the form of associating with other lawbreakers or with illegitimate markets (Jennifer et al. 2012).

Substance abuse among prisoners in Austin is very dangerous due to the many negative impacts associated with it. The negative impacts of drug abuse affect the victim both socially and psychologically. The sociological and psychological effects of substance abuse on inmates in Austin are diverse ranging from mental illnesses to contraction of other diseases. In the extreme cases, substance abuse leads to death of the drug abuser. According to William and Daniel, 2005), inmates who engage in substance abuse in prisons are at a high risk of contracting chronic diseases such as HIV/AIDs, hepatitis and other sexually transmitted diseases. This occurs especially when drug abusers engage in sexual behaviors influenced by drug abuse factor. The prevalence of diseases such as HIV/AIDS in prisons is very high, increasing the rate of risk of transmission. The other serious effect that substance abuse has on individuals is relapse. Relapse to drug abuse by offenders occurs especially when they are not treated, and this makes the offenders return to criminal behavior. Relapse can bring about re-arrest and re-incarceration of offenders, jeopardizing public health and taxing criminal justice system. Therefore, this does not only affect the criminal’s social life, but also impacts on the institutions involved negatively.

Most mental illnesses in prison are a result of substance and drug abuse (Hide et al. 2012). The mental psychology of substance abusers in prisons is disturbed by intoxication. This can make the individual to become insane or interfere with the logical thinking of the individual. Substance abuse can make the individual to alter his moods and change his or her attitudes and behaviors towards a particular thing. In most cases, even when substance abusers are released from prisons, most have a problem with health which affect their lives in all aspects including economic and social. According to research, two-thirds of prisoners who report back to prison consume alcohol or drug prior to incarceration (Hide et al. 2012). Many of the prisoners who return back to the community do not receive health services, and this contributes to instability making them engage in criminal activities that see them back to prisons. The families of drug abusers are mostly affected especially emotionally and economically in supporting their relative. Due to the many negative abuse associated with drug abuse in prisons, there is a dire need for intervention of stakeholders at all levels to fight against substance abuse. Although there are programs and policies established by the criminal justice system in Texas to deal with drug abusers, it seems like they are not sufficient. This is so because cases of substance abuse and their negative impacts have not reduced.

Justification and purpose of the study

Substance abuse is a current issue in criminal justice system of Texas. Although the issue had earlier existed, the form and mode of substance abuse in prisons have advanced and changed, making it a major issue of concern in Texas. The study is therefore very important considering the region has the highest prison population. The effects of substance abuse in prisons come with great challenges for the victims, families of the substance abusers as well as for the institutions concerned. It cannot therefore be ignored as an issue that affects an individual affects the society as a whole since people are what make the society. The study will be of great significance in addressing the effects that substance abuse has on drug abusers as well as suggesting ways to fight against substance abuse.

Research Methods

The study on effects of substance use in prison can take both the qualitative and quantitative forms of research. This being the case therefore, the study will apply both the qualitative and quantitative methods to collect and analyze data. The main objective of the study is to determine the effects of substance use on inmates in Austin. Interviews will be conducted on individuals who are willing to give information in prisons as well as rehabilitation centers in order to collect a wide range of data. Questionnaires will also be used in cases where interviews will not be possible.

Data will be analyzed using both descriptive and quantitative methods. In this case, therefore, tables, pie charts, as well as graphs will be used to analyze data and they will represent frequencies as well as percentages of issues being analyzed. Hypothesis will be tested using mathematical methods (chi-square) to determine the relationship between variables. The use of all these methods will ensure that the objectives of the study are achieved which is the most important thing in any research.

Literature Review

The number of inmates in the prison US prisons has continued to increase with about 2 million people imprisoned (Neubauer, 2012). The issue of incarceration in the United States is faced with a number of challenges due to the high numbers of Blacks, Latin Americans, and Native Americans. According to Stuntz, (2011), this has been met with many questions concerning the effectiveness of the criminal justice system in the US. Texas has the highest prison population. This being the case, Austin its capital City is of major concern. According to Jennifer et al. (2012), there are many problems faced by inmates in most prisons in Austin, ranging from social to psychological problems. Some of these problems arise because of under-provision of programs and policies by the criminal justice system.

Substance abuse in prisons is widely spread among many inmates (Texas Statistical Report, 2012). Despite the negative impacts that it brings, some inmates continue to abuse drugs for personal or other reasons. This has been associated with under-provision of treatment for drug abusers in prisons, which make them, engage in this activity that deteriorates their health as well as their social lives. It has been noted that approximately 85% of prisoners in the US meet the criteria for diagnosis in drug abuse (Frakt, 2012). This is because this population has a problem of substance abuse. Texas has a wide range of correctional facilities, and this are meant to change the individual’s behavior as well as attitudes towards actions that may have led him or her to engage in criminal activities. In this case, therefore, inmates’ behaviors should be changed for their wellbeing as well as the betterment of the entire society (Joseph and Emilie, 2010). It has been noted that substance abuse has many negative impacts on inmates in Austin Prisons.

Some of the negative impacts of substance abuse are related to the high risk of transmission of diseases such as hepatitis, HIV/AIDs and other sexually transmitted diseases (William and Daniel, 2005). Substance abuse may dispose the individual to engage in risky sexual behaviors, which can lead to contraction of chronic diseases that are transmitted sexually. Bearing in mind that there is the prevalence of HIV/AIDs in prisons, the risk of transmission is also very high. As people with drug influence have interfered with their psychology, this makes it easier for them to engage in risky sexual behaviors. Apart from the sexually transmitted diseases, substance abuse brings about mental illnesses, which at the extreme cases lead to death of the victims (Hide et al. 2012). It has been estimated that there The number of people suffering from mental illness and instability is twice higher in jails and prisons than in psychiatric hospitals in the United States (Davis, 2003). This causes other challenges, as sicknesses require medical attention, which may be costly for individuals with economic problems. Substance abuse creates problems to the family of drug abusers, as they are the ones that mostly bear the burden of catering for medical costs of the drug abuser. Economic problems create other problems that are social in nature. Lack of treatment may lead to relapse and the individual may end up committing other crimes, which means his or her social life will be that of a prisoner which adds no value to the individual and the society (Stover and Michels, 2010). The study is therefore, very important in addressing the effects of substance abuse on prisoners in Austin.

Conclusion

Effects of substance abuse on inmates of Austin are diverse and impact on the individual and society negatively. Inmates have a right to receive treatment for their drug addiction comparable to the treatment that exists in the community (Stover and Michels, 2010). The treatment should be one that gives maximum benefits to the drug user to become a helpful person to the society. There are programs and treatment that have worked for various victims of substance abuse, and these should be adopted in the criminal justice system in Texas.

References

Frakt, A. (2012). Under-provision of substance use treatment in prisons. The Incidental Economist, 9(8), 119.

Joseph, P., & Emilie, B. (2010). Risk of Reincarceration Among Prisoners with Co-occurring Severe Mental Illness and Substance Use Disorders. . Administration & Policy in Mental Health & Mental Health Services Research, 37(4), 367-374.

William, K., Tammy, M., & Daniel, M. (2005). Juvenile Referals in Texas: An Assessment of Criminogenic Needs and the Gap Between Needs and Services . Prison Journal, 85(4), 467-489.

Stuntz, William J. (2011). The Collapse of American Criminal Justice. Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Cambridge.

Hide, Y., Lambert, M., Hyunzee, J., & Solveig, S. (2012). Positive Family Social Support: Counteracting Negative Effects of Mental Illness and Substance Abuse to Reduce Jail Ex-inmate Recidivism Rates. . Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 22(2), 130-147.

Jennifer, P., George, J., & Paul, M. (2012). Hide, Y., Lambert, M., Hyunzee, J., & Solveig, S. (2012). Positive Family Social Support: Counteracting Negative Effects of Mental Illness and Substance Abuse to Reduce Jail Ex-inmate Recidivism Rates. . Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 22(2), 130-147. . Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 51(1/2), 78-95.

Chang, C. (2010). The Impact of Implementing Smoking Bans Among Incarcerated Substance Users: A Qualitative Study. . Evaluation & The Health Professions, 33(4), 473-479.

Davis, Angela Y (2003). Are Prisons Obsolete? Turnaround Publisher Services Ltd: Canada

Neubauer, David W (2011). America’s Courts and the Criminal Justice System. Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Belmont, CA:

Stover, H., & Michels, I. (2010). Drug use and opioid substitution treatment for prisoners. Harm Reduction Journal, 7(17), 153-158.

Statistical Report. (2012, September 6). Crime Statistics, The University of Texas at Austin Police Department (UTPD). Home | The University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved November 17, 2012, from http://www.utexas.edu/police/reports/statistics/

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Describing and summarizing key aspects in the sociology of work

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Describing and summarizing key aspects in the sociology of work

Work in capitalist pre-industrial society circa 1500-1750

No matter the society an individual lives in, all people depend on systems of production in order to survive. Sociologically, work refers to carrying out of or performing tasks that involve the expenditure of both mental and physical effort, with the objective of goods and services that server or cater to human needs (Volti, 2012). Work is what makes up the largest part of people’s lives as it takes up more time than any other human behavior. However, the type of work is different in pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial era, due to changes in science and technology. Capitalism refers to the recognition of a push or economic motivation in the form of the spirit to achieve maximum benefit. Capitalism began early in 1500-170, which was the first stage of capitalism (Hodson and Sullivan, 2008).

A pre-industrial society is a group with a common territory having a feeling of unity, which is derived from similarities in culture, community of interests and frequent contacts. It is a social group with territorial affiliation with no division of labor or specialization of functions, ruled by tribal officers or hereditary officers. Pre-industrial societies are divided into hunting and gathering, agrarian and horticultural societies. In pre-industrial societies, there is limited production that is artisanship vis-à-vis mass production (Haggerty, 2006). There is also limited specialization of work or division of labor. This is because capitalism in these societies needs a huge amount of skills and knowledge as the complex nature of industrial production cannot be done by a single group or person. This, therefore, means that production in these societies was relatively simple as compared to industrial and post industrial societies. The number of specialized crafts during this period, therefore, was limited during this period. The nature of work in these societies was a result of variation of social classes and limited communications between different societies or communities in pre-industrial societies. This was because of the limited means of transport and communication, allowing only a few people to be able to hear or see beyond their own village (Haggerty, 2006). This was due to the fact that during this period, most of the societies were largely rural communities.

In most pre-industrial societies, the main type of work involved food gathering and food production. In other words, production was mainly done for purposes of consumption. In some other larger societies, however, this period was different from medieval times, due to transformations that were taking place especially in agriculture and industrial sectors. There was also carpentry, shipbuilding and stonemasonry in some societies, but were very simple. The nature of work and occupation was mainly in these sectors, and this played part of improving the economy of most pre-industrial societies during this period. The world we live in was shaped by the economic growth that started in Europe. This was the wool industry, which boosted the economy of Europe in many ways (Goldstone, 2008). The industry was built in rural England as it acted as a empowered people in rural areas, which was beneficial for advancement of British capitalism. The nature of work and occupation during this era also took the form of other businesses such as warehousing, shipping, and other forms of wealth. Capitalism development in this period was also as a result of support from religious groups such as Protestant Calvinism and the teachings of Martin Luther King. Another type of occupation represented in this period, and that played a key role in boosting the economy of pre-industrial societies was mining of precious metals. For instance in Mexico, Bolivia and Mexico, there was mining of gold and silver from the mines in the regions (Goldstone, 2008). This was, however, done in simple forms.

One thing that is clear in this era is that all the work done in most societies took simpler forms as there were no technologies to boost the activities. Although clothing Industry and agriculture existed in some parts, it cannot be ignored that due to lack of advanced machinery, agriculture was agrarian and processes involved were simple. Stones were used instead of metal. This is different when compared to industrial and post-industrial eras, where the type of labor involved, requires some skills and expertise at all levels.

Working practices in capitalist industrial era-circa 1750-1980

Industrial era, on the other hand, is characterized by faster means of communication which led to growth of industrial societies politically, socially and economically. The period is also referred to as industrial revolution era. The other factors that led to growth of capitalism in these societies is the fact that most people had access to information about the world and this allowed the transfer of knowledge and skills as well as cultural diffusion among the societies. This period saw the rise of industrialization, which created employment for many people (Goloboy, 2008). Industrialization refers to the process of economic and social change that transforms people from pre-industrial societies to industrial ones. These both forms of change are related with technological innovation which alters the normal situation to a better one. This period saw forms of philosophical change, where people acquire different attitudes towards the environment in which they live in, and sociological process.

The types of work in this period were factored by favorable legal/political conditions for industry and commerce, plentiful natural resources of different kinds and abundant supplies of skilled, relatively low-cost and adaptable labor. According to Housel (2008), this was a transformation from agrarian economy to an industrial economy. This took place in a few countries of North America and Western Europe, starting in Great Britain, (the first industrialization in the world’s history). In capitalist industrial societies, people work in a wide range of occupations. During this period however, as industrialization was taking place, there was need for people to work in the industries I the production process. In fact, most of works on capitalist industrial society was done by various sociological theorists such as Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber. Karl Marx was the first person to describe the conditions of work in factories, which were coming out during this period. For example, there was transition from independent or personal craftwork to working for another person (boss). According to Marx, this resulted to alienation and deskilling. Weber, on the other hand, was focused on development of new kinds of authority that emerged because of change in occupations brought by industrial revolution. Weber was mostly focused on how these authorities would create stability and social order in society (Housel, 2008).

According to Wallerstein (1986), there is a big comparison between work in pre-industrial capitalist and work in industrial capitalist societies. For instance, in industrial societies, there are tools or machines, inanimate energy such as gas, coal, and oil in the production system. This is different from the production system in pre-industrial capitalist societies, where hand tools and human or animal energy were use in the production system. The units of production in industrial societies are adults or large-scale organizations as compared to the family household in pre-industrial societies (Wallerstein, 1986). Work in industrial societies involves a high degree of specialization (division of labor), which is different in pre-industrial societies where there is no specialization of work. In industrial societies, there is skill requirement and work is rewarded in wages and salaries. In addition, production is not specifically meant for consumption, as there exist an economic system and market that require the goods and services. It is, therefore, important to note all these differences between the two types of society (Goloboy, 2008).

Work in the capitalist post-industrial era-circa 1980 to the present day

A post-industrial society, on the other hand, is one in which a transition in the economy has occurred from a manufacturing based economy to an economy based on service. This reflects a diffusion of national and global as well as mass privatization (Castles, 2010). The factors that influence capitalism growth in this era are liberalization and processes of industrialization, which spur reconstruction of the society as a whole. This period exhibits social and economic attributes, which include a transition from production of goods to the services industry. In these societies, production of goods such as steel and clothing decline as services industries such as selling hamburgers and offering financial advice increase. Services in this era predominate in a wide range of sectors with the most decisive services for a post-industrial society being education, research, health and government services.

The types of occupation during capitalist post-industrial era have more to do with professional work. There is a decline in the importance of ‘blue collar’ manual labor such as line workers and assembly, which are replaced by professionalism and technical work, which predominate the society. For instance, there is increase in the number of accountants, lawyers, architects and even computer programmers who offer services required in their professions. Due to high levels of science and technology in this era, there is the rise of scientists who are specialized in their work, and these include engineers, electric or genetic, who have a high degree of skill and competence in their work (Roulleau, 2003). The nature of work in this era creates a new relationship in the post-industrial society between new technologies and science. This, in turn, leads to the need for more higher learning institutions as they are crucial to the post-industrial society. This is because higher learning institutions such as universities produce experts who can create, guide, and control the new and changing technologies. According to Castles (2010), this era is represented by a number of countries around the world such as the United States, Canada, Japan, and Western Europe.

Science and technology plays a significant role in capitalism. This is described by the transformation of societies in terms of social, economic, as well as, political growth. Work, being an important aspect in individual’s lives, requires skills and knowledge if the economic system is to be improved since a positive change in the economy leads to improvement in people’s welfare (Hodson and Sullivan, 2008). A post-industrial era is a dream of many societies around the world. According to Sweet and Meiksins (2008), this requires embracing science and new technologies if societies are to achieve this.

References

HODSON, R., & SULLIVAN, T. A. (2008). The social organization of work. Belmont, CA, Wadsworth.

VOLTI, R. (2012). An introduction to the sociology of work and occupations. Thousand Oaks, Calif, Sage.

SWEET, S. A., & MEIKSINS, P. (2008). Changing contours of work: jobs and opportunities in the new economy. Thousand Oaks, CA, Pine Forge Press.

HAGGERTY, S. (2006). The British-Atlantic trading community: 1760-1810 : men, women, and the distribution of goods. Leiden [u.a.], Brill.

GOLDSTONE, J. A. (2008). Why Europe?: the rise of the West in world history, 1500-1850. New York, McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

WALLERSTEIN, I. M. (1986). Africa and the modern world. Trenton, N.J., Africa World Press.

HOUSEL, D. J. (2008). Industrial revolution. Huntington Beach, CA, Teacher Created Materials.

GOLOBOY, J. L. (2008). Industrial revolution: people and perspectives. Santa Barbara, Calif, ABC-CLIO.

CASTLES, F. G. (2010). The Oxford handbook of the welfare state. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

ROULLEAU-BERGER, L. (2003). Youth and work in the post-industrial city of North America and Europe. Leiden [u.a.], Brill.

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Database Management- Accounting

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Abstract

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………

II. History of Database Management Systems……………………………………………

III. Types of Database Management Systems……………………………………………..

Hierarchical DBMS……………………………………………………………….
Network DBMS……………………………………………………………………
Relational DBMS…………………………………………………………………..
Object-oriented DBMS…………………………………………………………….

IV. Advantages of Database Management Systems………………………………………

V. Disadvantages of Database Management Systems………………………………………

VI. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………

VII. Recommendations ……………………………………………………………………

VIII. References…………………………………………………………………………….

IX. Definition of terms……………………………………………………………………….

Introduction

Data base Management Systems (DBMS) refers to a collection of programs that enable storage, modification and extraction of data or information from a database. In other terms, a DBMS is a software program, which enables the creation and management of databases. According to Gill (2008), there exist a variety of types of DBMs that range from small systems on personal computers to large systems that run on mainframes. All types of DBMSs used have their advantages and disadvantages depending on their applications. Database management systems are a crucial and integrated component of most successful GIS. Their uses are to store, manipulate and retrieve data from a database. The range of DBMS structures used include network, relational designs, inverted list and hierarchical. There has been a realization of the importance of database management systems. For all programs run in a computer, there has to be particular features or characteristics of the programs. Database management systems serve the data or information requirements of many users rather than a single individual (Pratt & Adamski, 2012).

History of database management systems

The history of database management systems dates back around the time that computers began to take off. The concept of the database was put in use and began to grow in commercial use in 1960s. The emergence of the first type of DBMS took place during this period. This was the hierarchical DBMS. IBM had the first model of a DBMS, developed on IBM 360. Their DBMS known as IMS was originally written for the Apollo program (Pratt & Adamski, 2012). The shape of this DBMS was like a tree. There were limitations in the relations in this system between parents and children records. The benefits, however, were numerous, security and integrity of data was enhanced, and all these led to efficiencies. There were, however, some disadvantages associated with these kinds of databases management systems. For instance, there was the complexity in the implementation of the systems. In addition, managing the DBMS was difficult because of the absence of standards. This made it difficult to handle multiple relationships. Around 1960-1970s, there was the development of the network DBMS.

According to Gill (2008), the first DBMS was developed by Charles Bachmann at Honeywell, called Integrated Data Store (IDS). A group known as CODASYL created the COBOL and standardized the system. The group invented the CODASYL APPROACH. Many systems using network DBMS were implemented for business use based on the CODASYL APPROACH. In this model, each and every record could have multiple parents in contrast with the hierarchical DBMS. Sets of relationships could be established in this type of DBMS. The disadvantage with this type of DBMS was that there was difficulty in design and maintenance. Additionally, the system was complex and lacked structural independence. Between the 1970s and 1980s, there was the emergence of the relational DBMS. This development is associated with Edgar Codd, who was unhappy with the CODASYL APPROACH. According to Codd, a search tool or facility was useful, but it was absent. He proposed a new approach to database construction in 1970. This led to the creation of a relational DBMS, which was particularly beneficial for Large Shared Data Banks. This system of entering data was beneficial as table of records could be linked to many other tables. Two programs were launched that is the INGRES program and the R program at the University of California.

A later development of DBMS was in 1985 when the object-oriented DBMS was developed. This included new data models and powerful languages. The vendors were SQL Server, Informix, Oracle, and IBMs DB2. However, due to the high costs associated with the implementation of the object-oriented DBMS and changing of systems and format, it did not have any booming commercial profit (Rahimi & Haug, 2010). However, in 1990, the object-oriented database took a new approach joint with the relational DBMS. In this new approach, multimedia, text, web and the internet use in conjunction with DBMS were available, and their use was also possible.

Kinds of database management systems

Database management systems come in many sizes and shapes. Individuals are able to purchase a DBMS with only a few dollars for their desktop computers. For computer systems that are larger, their cost is a bit expensive. In this case, therefore, many mainframe-based database management systems are leased by firms and organizations. These types of DBMS are vastly sophisticated meaning that they would be expensive to develop them from scratch. It, therefore, becomes less costly for an organization to lease the DBMS rather than developing it. There are different kinds of database management systems that exist, with different fundamental characteristics, as well as, advantages and disadvantages (strengths and weaknesses). In this case, database management systems are classified into four main categories that is network, relational hierarchical, and object-oriented (Gill, 2008).

Hierarchical DBMS

These are regularly used on mainframe computers and have existed for a long time. These types of databases are one of the oldest means of categorizing and storing data. Hierarchical databases are used by organizations in making travel reservations. Their main key feature is that they are organized in a pyramid style or design just like the branches of a tree that extend downwards. Records or fields that are related are grouped together. In this case, therefore, there are lower level records and higher level records or fields. Based on the tree analogy, the parent record, which is at the peak of the pyramid, is referred to as the root field or record. A child record is linked only to one parent. A parent record may sometimes have more than one child record connected to it. This implies that, in these types of databases, a record search is carried out by starting at the summit of the pyramid, going down through the tree until the appropriate or the required record is found. The advantages or strengths of these types of databases are that they enable rapid update and access (Rahimi & Haug, 2010). This is because the structure and the correlation between records are established in advance. However, there also exist weaknesses in these types of databases. Each child may have only one parent, and the linkages and relationships between children are not allowed. This implies that hierarchical databases are extremely rigid in their design, and the establishment or addition of a new record or field requires the restructuring of the entire database.

Network DBMS

Network databases have also a hierarchical structure just like the hierarchical databases. However, there exist a few differences between the two types of databases. Network DBMS look more like interconnected network of records. Children in this case are called members while parents are known as owners. In network databases, each and every member may have more than one owner. They are mostly used on mainframe computers. According to Rahimi and Haug (2010), a major advantage of network databases is that they are more flexible than hierarchical databases. This is because connections and linkages between different types of records or data. They are also defined in advance. However, there is also a disadvantage associated with network databases, which lies in the fact that there is a limit as to the number of correlations and linkages that are made between records.

Relational DBMS

In this type of databases, the connection between data files is relational rather than hierarchical. Relational databases do the opposite of what network and hierarchical databases do. In the network and hierarchical databases, users are required to work down through a particular order to access the information that he or she require. On the other hand, relational databases connect or link records in diverse files by use of common or similar data fields or elements. In relational databases, data is stored in distinct tables, with each having a key field, which is unique, and which is used to identify each row. In this case, therefore, relational databases enhance flexibility than both network and hierarchical database structures (Gill, 2008).

Tables and files in relational databases are called relations. Rows are designated as tuples while columns are known as attributes or fields. These databases operate on the theory that each table has a unique key field that identifies each row. These key fields are the ones used to link a table of data to other tables. For instance, one table may have a row that has a customer account number as the key field beside with the telephone number and address. The account number of the customer in the table could be linked or connected to another table that also includes the customer account number (key field), but which may contain other information such as information regarding product returns. The table of product returns could include an item number (also a key field). The item number could be related to another table that has item numbers, as well as, other information on the format such as color, production location and other relevant information. Relational databases are popular in usage especially for two main reasons. Firstly, they are used with little or no training at all. Secondly, data entries in relational databases can be modified without necessarily restructuring the entire structure (Rahimi & Haug, 2010). However, relational databases are disadvantaged by the fact that they may be tedious. This is because searching for particular data can take a longer time than if other methods are used. Examples include MS Access, Foxbase,

Object-oriented Databases

These types of databases are capable of managing many new data types including photographs, audio, video and graphics. Object-oriented databases are more advanced than the other three databases. Because of the simplicity of design of network and hierarchical databases, they are structured to handle data that fits perfectly into fields, columns and rows. These databases only handle little information such as addresses, names, and product numbers. Object-oriented databases, on the other hand, are used to store data from a variety of media sources of such as text and photographs, and produce output in a multimedia design. In their operations, these types of databases use reusable and small chunks of objects known as objects. These objects are stored in the database (Rahimi & Haug, 2010).

There are two elements in each object. The first element is a piece of data, which may be video, sound, text, or graphics. The second element is the software programs or instructions for what to do with the data. Instructions that are within the object are used to perform a particular purpose. For instance, the object could have test scores as the instructions for calculating the average test score. As much as there are many advantages associated with the use of object-oriented databases, there are two disadvantages of these databases (Gill, 2008). First, the cost of developing these databases is relatively high. Secondly, most organizations are hesitant to convert from databases that they have previously invested funds in their development and implementation. However, the benefits associated with object-oriented databases outweigh the costs. The capacity to mix reusable objects provides unbelievable multimedia capability. For instance, their use in healthcare organizations is high as the organizations are able to store, and track CAT scans, electrocardiograms, X-rays, and other forms of vital data.

General advantages of database management systems

One of the advantages of DBMSs is that of improved availability. This means that the same information is available for a variety of users. Reduced redundancy is an advantage of DBMSs. The data in the database management systems is more concise because the information in it appears only once. The need to repeat the same data severally is, therefore, reduced. This has a significant impact on reducing the costs of storing data on hard drives and other devices used in the storage of data. Another advantage of database management systems is accuracy. Data in the databases is consistent, up-to-date, and accurate. Database management systems promote data integrity because changes and updates on the data are made in one place. Accuracy is, therefore, enhanced as the possibility of making a mistake are lower if one is required to change data in one place than if one is to change data in several places (Pratt & Adamski, 2012). Database management systems enhance data independence, which is a requirement of all application programs. Centralizing the administration of data offers individuals with as a lot of improvements regarding data. In addition, database management systems protect users from the effects of system failure (Pratt & Adamski, 2012).

Database management systems enhance program and file consistency. The system programs and file formats in database management systems are standardized. This enables easier maintenance of files since similar rules and guidelines apply in all kinds of data. The level of consistency across all programs and files enable easy management of data especially when many programmers are involved. Database management systems are user-friendly. It is easier to access data with a DBMS than when one does not use it. In addition, DBMS reduce the dependence of individuals on specialists to help them with their data needs. According to Pratt and Adamski (2012), there is improved security associated with the use of database management systems. Although a DBMS allows users to access the same data resources, there are no potential risks involved as passwords are used in database management systems, which limit access of access to only people that should access it. This ensures maximum security of data.

General disadvantages of database management systems

The cost of implementing a DBMS can be high. The process may also be tedious and time-consuming especially in bigger organizations. The requirements for training can also be costly. Although DBMS enhance security of data, there are chances that unauthorized users may access the database. Once unauthorized personnel access the database, they also have access to all the data. This breaches in security may pose a danger or risk to individual’s security, depending on the nature of the data accessed (Pratt & Adamski, 2012).

Conclusion

Database management systems have swiftly become one of the leading texts for database courses, known for its comprehensive coverage and practical emphasis. In the modern times, there has been continued development of new materials on database applications, with great focus on internet applications and programs (Gill, 2008). The multiple benefits of DBMSs have enabled its wider use by individuals and organizations all over the world. With the emerging trends in database management such as multimedia databases, interactive video, streaming data and digital libraries, there benefits continue to be experienced. Database management systems are used everywhere around the world. With the advancement of technology, the forms of the management systems have advanced, and this has the positive effects of accuracy, efficiency and effectiveness when handling data. Everything from online auctions to banking transactions uses DBMSs. All transactions that involve data and information are carried out using DBMSs. As the technology expands, as more businesses and consumers engage in online transactions, the more the DBMSs will be used.

Recommendations

DBMSs are beneficial to individual and organizations that use them in their transactions. They reduce redundancy of work, improve availability, ensure consistency and accuracy of data, as well as, improving security of data and information (Pratt& Adamski, 2012). These benefits together with other more advantages achieved while using DBMSs cannot be ignored as they outweigh the costs incurred in implementation and maintenance of the systems. Once the systems are developed, the individuals or organizations begin to enjoy the benefits that arise in using DBMS. It is, therefore, advisable for all organizations to implement the database management systems in their computing. The technology has advanced and will continue to grow as the world changes. There is, therefore, need to change with the changing world. Gone are times when things were done manually as technology has changed all things for the better. However, there might arise some issues in the use of data management systems. For instance, the security of data might be challenged when unauthorized personnel access the database. This might interfere with the privacy of data, depending on the data and information that is accessed. In this case, therefore, serious and strict measures need to be taken. For instance, there could be implementation of security programs that detect unauthorized personnel. On matters where the files in the database may be lost, steps should be taken to regularly make back up copies of all the files in a database, and store them because of the possibility of catastrophes such as fires, earthquakes or other catastrophes that might lead to the destruction of the system (Coronel et al., 2012).

References

Gill, P. S. (2008). Database management systems. New Delhi: I.K. International.

Pratt, P. J., & Adamski, J. J. (2012). Concepts of database management. Boston, Mass: Course Technology.

Rahimi, S., & Haug, F. S. (2010). Distributed database management systems: A practical approach. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley.

Coronel, C., Morris, S., & Rob, P. (2012). Database systems: Design, implementation, and management. Boston, Mass: Course Technology/Cengage Learning.

Definition of terms

Database- a collection of related digitized files

Record- a collection of attributes related to an entity such as a person or product

Database management system-a software package that enables users to edit, link, and update files as needs dictate

Field-an item of data; that is, a character, or group of characters that are related

Database file- a collection of related records

Key-a unique identifier to a particular record

User- an individual using a computer program

Data- unprocessed information

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Classical Psychodynamic Theory

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The classical psychodynamic theory is used to explain personality development. One of the most significant proponents of this theory is Freud. Freud believed that individuals have three levels of awareness, the conscious, preconscious, and the unconscious. He developed a theory on how individuals’ feelings and thoughts affect their actions (psychodynamic theory). Freud argued that individuals can infer the existence of the unconscious through slips of dreams and tongue. This theory is still prevalent in the field of psychology. He understood the mind as frequently in conflict with itself (Hutchison, 2011). He further understood the conflict to be the fundamental cause of human unhappiness and anxiety. It is vital to note that the division of the mind by Freud is not the splitting up of the mind into distinct structures and functions that exist in physical divisions in the brain. In fact, they are not structures, but separate elements and aspects of the structure of the mind.

According to Freud, human personality is comprised of three aspects that work together to produce complex behaviors (Sheehan, 1993). These are the id, the ego, and the superego (Hutchison, 2011). These elements function in different levels of consciousness. The interface between the three components of the mind reflects a steady movement of objects from one stage to another. The three elements require to be well-balanced to have a significant level of psychological energy and reasonable mental health. The ego has a complicated time handling the desires of the superego and the id. The psychological conflict is a pervasive and intrinsic part of human experience. One of the most fundamental psychological conflicts that all people face is the clash between the id and the superego. The way in which an individual characteristically resolves the immediate gratification versus long term reward in numerous ways reflects on their character. The id functions in the emotional and irrational part of the mind. According to Sheehan (1993), it comprises all the basic feelings and needs. This represents the source for psychic force. The id operates on the pleasure principle. As a child comes into the realism of life, it wishes to satisfy all its needs. The urges of the id are represent the most primordial motivational power. In pursuit of the demands, the id demands instant gratification regardless of conditions and potential undesirable effects. If people are ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, people would steal and snatch things from others regardless of the owners watching them. The id cannot stand for a holdup in satisfaction. If the desire is not satisfied, the id develops a memory of the end of the inspiration (Burger, 2011).

The ego operates with the rational and sane part of the mind. It develops out of increasing awareness that one cannot always get whatever he or she wants. It relates to the actual world and functions through the reality principle. It recognizes the need for cooperation and bargains between the superego and the id. The role of the ego is to get the get the pleasures of the id, but to be rational and reasonable and bring the long-term effects in mind. It denies both immediate gratification and moral delaying of gratification. Ego-strength refers to how ell the ego copes with conflicting forces. The ego develops from the eventual understanding that instant gratification is not possible (Burger, 2011). Therefore, the ego operates as a mediator of the the superego and the id. It suppresses the urges of the id until a proper situation arises. The repression of improper urges and desires reflects tension on, and the most vital function of the mind. Often, the ego uses defense mechanisms in achieving and aiding in repression. The efforts of the ego at pragmatic fulfillment of urges ultimately create a variety of memories and skills and recognize itself as an entity. According to Burger (2011), with the development of the ego, the person becomes a self, rather than an amalgamation of needs and urges.

On the other hand, the superego is the last element of the mind to build up. It is an embodiment of societal and parental values. It enforces and stores rules. It frequently strives for perfection, although this excellence model may be far from possibility or reality. The power of the superego to enforce rules comes from its ability to build anxiety. The superego is comprised of two subsystems; the ego ideal and conscience. On one hand, the ego ideal gives rules for good behaviors and values of fineness towards which the ego must struggle. It is fundamentally what societal members approve or value as right in society (Hutchison, 2011). On the other hand, the conscience is the rules about what constitutes unaccepted behavior. It is basically all the things that individuals feel that the entire society will punish or disapprove. While the ego may repress certain urges and demands temporarily in fear of punishment, the external causes of punishment are internalized. This implies that individuals will restrain from activities that are likely to bring negative effects on society. The superego applies self-approach and guilt as its basic means of enforcement of rules. However, when an individual does something that is tolerable by the superego, he or she experiences self-satisfaction and pride.

Stages of psychosexual development

Sigmund Freud advanced his theory of development of human personality that centered on the impacts of the sexual gratification drive on the psyche of an individual (Shaffer, 2009). At certain points in the process of development, Freud claimed that one body part is specifically sensitive to erotic, sexual stimulation. The erogenous zones described by Freud include the mouth, the genital region, and the anus. The libido of the child centers on actions affecting the basic erogenous zone of the child’s age. Therefore, the child cannot focus on the principal erogenous region of the next stage before resolving the conflict of development of the immediate stage. A child at a particular developmental stage has certain demands and needs. Some of the needs include the need of the child to nurse. However, frustrations crop up when these needs are not met. Overindulgence comes from such an adequate meeting of the needs that the child becomes reluctant to go beyond the stage. Both overindulgence and frustration lock some level of the child’s libido enduringly into the phase in which they happen, both lead to fixation. On one hand, if a child progresses in the normal way through the phases, resolving each clash and moving on, then there is only little amount of libido that remains invested in each developmental stage. On the other hand, if the child fixates at a certain stage, the method of getting satisfaction that characterized the phase will control and influence the child’s personality in a negative manner (Shaffer, 2009).

The oral stage is the first stage of personality development according to Freud. This occurs from birth to 18 months of a child. This stage starts at birth, whilst the oral cavity is the prime concern of libidal vigor. The child preoccupies itself with nurture and attention, with the pleasure obtained from sucking and taking things into its mouth. The oral character who gets frustrated during this period, whose mother declined to nurse, is characterized by the aspect of pessimism, sarcasm, envy, and suspicion. The overindulged character, on the other hand, whose nursing demands and urges were always and extremely satisfied becomes optimistic, full of admiration for people around him or her and is also gullible. This stage ends in the primary battle of weaning that deprives the child of both the psychological and sensory gratification of being cared for, held, and mothered. As stated earlier, the stage lasts for an approximation of one and half years (Sigelman, 2011).

The anal stage is the next stage in psychosexual development. It takes place between 18 months and three years. With the initiation of toilet training arises the obsession of the child with the erogenous region of the anus and with the expulsion or retention of the faeces. This reflects a classic clash between the id that obtains pleasure from expulsion of wastes of the body and the superego and the ego that reflect the societal and practical pressures to control the functions of the body. The child gets into conflict between the child’s urges and physical capabilities and the parent’s demands in either of the two ways. The child may put up a fight or simply decline to go. The child that wants to fight may take pleasure in excreting unkindly before being placed in the toilet or potty. In case the parents are too compassionate and the child derives pleasure from this action, it results to the creation of an anal expulsive personality. This personality is normally disorganized, messy, careless, reckless, and defiant. On the other hand, a child may choose to retain faeces deriving pleasure from spiting the parents and retaining faeces built-up in the intestines. According to Shaffer (2009), if this strategy succeeds and the child becomes overindulged, the child will grow into an anal retentive character. The features and characteristics of this character is that he is precise, neat, careful, orderly, stingy, obstinate, and withholding. The resolution to this stage, appropriate toilet training, permanently influences the individual tendencies to attitudes and possession towards authority.

The third stage is called the phallic stage. It takes place between three to six years. This stage reflects the most vital sexual conflict in developmental model of Freud. During this stage, the genital region is the child’s erogenous region. Conflict arises as the child becomes interested in his or her genitals, as well as, other people’s genitals. The conflict is called Oedipus complex in males and Electra complex, in females. This entails the child’s unconscious urge to get rid of the same-sexed parent and have the opposite-sexed parent. In males, Oedipus conflict arises from the child’s natural desire for his mother (Sigelman, 2011). This love becomes sexual as the libidal energy moves from the anal to the genital region. Unluckily, the child feels envy and aggression towards his father as the child sees him as a rival. He feels as if they are competing with his father for the love and affection of the mother. The child is struck by a lot of fear that the father might remove his penis as the mother does not have a penis. This anxiety is intensified by the discipline and threats he gets when caught masturbating by the parents. The boy, therefore, represses the desire as the castration anxiety outshines the desire for his father. Furthermore, albeit the boy knows that he cannot have his mother has his father already has her; he feels he can still have her vicariously by identifying with the father. This identification reflects in the later life in the voice of the father within him (the boy), thus resolving the conflict. Failure to resolve this conflict may result to the child becoming homosexual in the future. This implies that fixation at this phase creates a phallic personality who is resolute, reckless, self-assured (Sigelman, 2011). Failure to resolve this conflict may also result to the individual being afraid or incapable of establishing close relationships.

The latency stage takes place between six years to puberty. This period is not a psychosexual stage of development; however, it is a stage in which the sexual force becomes dormant. Freud describes this stage as the stage of unparalleled repression of erogenous impulses and sexual desires. During this stage, individuals are concerned with school, same-sex friendships, and activities such as sports. However, libidal energy arises when the age of puberty strikes (Shaffer, 2009).

The last psychosexual stage is the genital stage, which occurs from the age of puberty onwards. Individuals’ energy is focused on his genitals as interests turn into heterosexual relationships. According to Sigelman (2011), the less the energy the individual has put in unsettled psychosexual developments, the higher his aptitude will be to establish normal relations with the opposite sex. However, if an individual remains fixated especially on the phallic phase, his or her development will be challenged as he or she struggle with further defenses and repression.

References

Burger, J. M. (2011). Personality. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Hutchison, E. D. (2011). Dimensions of human behavior: The changing life course (4th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

Shaffer, D. R. (2009). Social and personality development. Australia: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.

Sheehan, S. (1993). Life for me ain’t been no crystal stair. New York: Vintage.

Sigelman, C. K., & Rider, E. A. (2011). Life-span human development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

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Chinese Education System History

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Chinese Education System History

Introduction

Since the formation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the government of China has always put education at a high level on its agenda. Over the past decades, China has made considerable progress through uninterrupted efforts. Currently, a nine-year mandatory education is on the implementation process in organized stages countywide. In addition, primary education is now available to an estimate of 91% of the total population of China. Higher learning education institutions such as diversified adult, ethical schools and polytechnics have been established rapidly. China has established a system of education in which the government is the key investor while social partners are co-investors. During its present stage, the local government is paying a significant role in mandatory education. On the other hand, the provincial and central governments dominate in the higher learning institutions (Hindman 250). The Education Ministry is responsible for the implementation of regulations, laws, policies, and guidelines of the central government. Additionally, it is responsible for planning the education sector development, coordinating and integrating programs and initiatives countrywide, as well as, guiding and maneuvering reform nationwide. In the recent years, there is movement into the educational sector through non-governmental investment that provides more seats for applicants.

The History of the Chinese education system

China remains one of the ultimate economies in the world today. In fact, increased trade and manufacturing in the Republic of China has seen the country turning out to command a huge influence in the world of the economy today. The Human Resource Base of the country stands is a chief factor why International Corporations are setting foot in the country for supplies and logistical concerns. While all this is happening, it must be noted that the educational system of the country is factored for the growth and the development of the country. This implies the significance of education in almost all aspects of the Country’s development. The country has established a learning system where the administration is the main investor and social partners are co-investors as mentioned earlier. The existing education system is a culmination of changes and growth of previous education systems during the Confucius, Sui, Tang dynasty, Ming and Qing dynasty’s education (Wang 12).

A majority of scholars in China believe that the history of the Chinese education system has its roots back in the 16^th Century. The education system can be divided into three major parts that include Confucius, Sui Tang Dynasty, Ming and Qing Dynasty. On a wider scale, the system can be divided into five key periods. These include the Imperial Education (Pre-1840), Opium War- P.R.C (1940-1949), P.R.C- Cultural Revolution (1949-1966), Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), and Post-Mao Reforms (1976 to present). Throughout the period of Imperial Education, education was the privilege of only a few elites. In most cases, education existed for the purpose of producing officials of the government. Earlier, the curriculum was focused on what was referred to as ‘Six Arts’ that included music, rites, history, mathematics, chariot-riding, and archery (Reagan 110). However, during the Autumn, Spring, and Warring States period around 770-221 B.C, the curriculum slowly allowed for education based on the Five Classics and the Four Books. These were influenced by the teachings of Confucius. His works highlighted the principles of government and society and codes of personal conduct. Confucius teachings also defined the philosophy underlying the teachings, which exerted an essential influence on all aspects of life including education. This was so until the ascent of power and Liberation by Communists during the period of 1949 (Hayhoe 123).

During this time, a system, which educated the elite class was developed. This, however, does not imply that the government actively offered any kind of public education. Rather, the imperial government only played an active role in education in as much as it managed or controlled the various stages of the civil or imperial service assessments that were applied in the selection of officers in the imperial government. These assessments comprised of essay questions that assessed the candidate’s comprehension of teachings of Confucius. Candidates could get ready for assessments by enrolling in the private higher learning institutions. These existed for the purpose of preparing students for examinations of the civil service (Reagan 120).

The Shang dynasty gave way for the next dynasty. This was the period when the people of China were persistent in their belief that intellectually and socially they had no peers, particularly when compared with the Western cultures. The people thought that they had a highly advanced culture and also felt that their technological tradition was rich. With the humiliating defeat by the British during the Opium War, the people of China were compelled to reevaluate their supremacy especially in science and technology area. Western education began to take root in China as a result of the defeat in the war, as well as, the cessation of Hong Kong. For most parts, the education took place through the establishment of schools by missionaries. However, a significant number of the Chinese viewed the developments with extreme suspicion and a sense of humiliation. On the other hand, for a few officials that were liberal-minded and pragmatic, they saw this as a chance for a balanced strategy or approach to education, in which classics of Confucius would continue to create the core, supplemented by an element of Western technology (Wang 80).

This system continued being the only route to the administrative system, against a setting of massive illiteracy. With the conquest in the Sino-Japanese War in the year 1895, the people of China now became completely convinced that their future would be determined by the acceptance of particular elements of Western-form education. In fact, Japan had been successful after the adoption of the Western education when compared to the non-Western society. The civil service system was, therefore, eliminated in 1905 (Hayhoe, 127). In addition, a series of reform actions were offered by the court of the Qing Dynasty advocating for the reorganization of old academies into a modern system of education levels of primary, secondary, and tertiary to be based on models from the West.

It can be argued that the Tang Dynasty (618-907) was important in the Chinese education history because it occurred during the period within which the country marked an essential milestone in growth of art and literature. During this era, the program of the civil service educational was enhanced and extended. The founder of the Tang Dynasty, Li Yuan, recognized that there was much danger in leaving the nation in the hands of a few warlords. As a result, he considered the educational empowerment of the large base of civil servants would be crucial in avoiding such nobility. As more and more individuals got educated, poetry took a course as more individuals came up with poetry literatures. In addition, the Ming (1368–1644) Dynasty had its equal share in the development of the Chinese learning system. In fact, this dynasty came into action after the end of the Yuan Dynasty (Rees 112). The educational system of China was standardized during this dynasty. This led to the development of a more detailed curriculum that had specifics in the curriculum taken into consideration. This was the first time that the civil service education moved up from being a specialized system where distinct disciplines would be taught to students.

In 1991, the Qing Dynasty was conquered during the revolution of the bourgeois. Furthermore, a Republican kind of government was developed. At this time, the European, Japanese, and American education models were already in China. The Japanese model was the first to be tested as a result of the successful adaptation in Japan. The system was implemented by various Chinese scholars that were trained in Japan. During the early 1920s, this system gave way to a model that was more closely patterned on the models of America (Rees 110). Even during the period between 1915-1920, there were powerful disputes and debates on the cloning of the education systems of the West in a state that was trying to establish a new identity after the dynastic reign.

It is not right to state that the debates were focused on matters of education alone. The debates were highly political and were facilitated in part by the takeover by the Marxist government, as well as, the Russian Revolution. In 1921, the Chinese Communist party was founded with its ideas and perceptions on the right model of education in China. During this period, it was decided that a system was required to cater for the country’s technological needs that would still preserve the identity of China (Ricklefs 60). The model also required to be extended to reach the masses in the rural society. Several of experiments were carried out during this period. These were aimed at bringing higher education to those individuals who were not able to afford it. However, these debates and experiments were suspended during the Japanese invasion in the late 1930s, until in 1949 after the Liberation.

A new educational system known as the Soviet Model was established shortly after the Liberation. This was undertaken with less regard for the distinct features of the environment of China than was the instance that followed the Sino-Japanese War. Earlier on, the motivation was directed by technological needs. The Soviet Union was established as the new prototype for achievement. The models, however, did exceptionally little to address the issue of illiteracy of the mass. In fact, it was evident that less than half of secondary and primary aged children were in school. Most efforts during this time were directed at restructuring and development of higher education. Consequently, the number of universities declined while, on the other hand, there was a significant increase in the number of specialized colleges (Ricklefs 65). In the efforts of restricting, the Higher Education Ministry was charged with a powerful responsibility of overseeing the administration of polytechnic and comprehensive universities and institutions of training teachers. However, further progress was thwarted in 1961 along with failing of policies of the Great Leap Forward, a rise in natural calamities, and the collapse of linkages with the Soviet Union. Even before these events, the Anti-Rightest Campaign had isolated the intellectuals who had been influential in establishing reforms in the education sector, in 1957.

As the Soviet model was no longer the approach, there was resuming of earlier attempts by the government to attain a balance between the Western-style and the Confucian education. This took the form of work study and vocational training, college, college preparatory, and regular university. The model developed smoothly until in 1966 during the breakout of the Cultural Revolution. The model was perceived by a majority of the Chinese as one that would continue producing a class of few elites, with the masses settling for something minimal or less. This was viewed as self-serving as it was felt that the officials in schools were the perpetuators of the system, and were seen as culprits. Such issues were brought up to the media paving the way to a Cultural Revolution. As a consequence, there was a rapid spread of schools across China (Mathur et al. 207). The commissioning of work teams was the first formal response by the government aimed at overseeing the activities during the revolution. Distinct works teams responded in various ways, some strongly agreeing with the revolutionary students while others more focused on protecting the administrators. During the same period, it was clearly declared that education had been ruled by intellectuals (bourgeois). In addition, it was proclaimed that the establishment of a new model more directly based on teachings of Mao was required (Mathur et al. 210).

In the following three years, colleges were managed by teams such as the soldiers from the People’s Liberation, Red Guards, the workers, and peasants. In addition, heightened factionalism frequently brought about an entire cessation of classes. The Cultural Revolution did not affect the primary schools much as during its fall in 1967, most of the schools had reopened for normal activities or operations. The system for primary education was changed in that it was shortened to five or four years. Programs for secondary programs were also shortened. There was also a reconstitution of the curriculum in order to conform to the practical needs, leading to eradication of coursework in certain subjects including geography, history, and literature. It is essential to note that even significant subjects such as chemistry and physics allowed for courses in industrial skills. Consequently, the matter of key school was eliminated, with enrollments in secondary and primary schools being dependent on proximity (Rees 78). The system of entrance examinations of universities was stopped. However, few universities and colleges selected students based on political virtue. Students from families of soldiers, peasants, and workers were considered the most virtuous and were the first to be enrolled. Cultural Revolution represented disruptive times for the society of China, as well as, its education to be specific. The revolutionary struggles ruined the educational infrastructure. This caused students to suffer because of a non-existent curriculum. The only benefit during this period was the elementary education delivery to a large percentage of children within the age of attending schools. This was largely because of agricultural collectivization that allowed for the formation of large numbers of schools that were overseen by the collective agencies rather than the higher-level agencies.

The periods discussed above saw a lot of changes in the Chinese education system. This was the period that necessitated reforms and significant advances in areas such as industry, agriculture, science and technology, and national defense. These were to keep in line with the four Cardinal Principles that included the people’s democratic dictatorship, the socialist road, the Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong thought, and the Chinese Communist Party leadership. The system remains an essential one in the nations in all aspects of individuals’ lives including social, economic, religious, and political lives.

Works Cited

Wang, Xiufang. Education in China Since 1976. Jefferson, N.C: McFarland & Co, 2003. Print.

Rees, Joseph. Globalisation. Paris: OECD, 2009. Print.

Hindman, Hugh D. The World of Child Labor: An Historical and Regional Survey. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe, 2009. Internet resource.

Ricklefs, M C. A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 2001. Print.

Huang, Tiedan, and Alexander W. Wiseman. The Impact and Transformation of Education Policy in China. Bingley, U.K: Emerald, 2011. Print.

Mathur, Nalini, and Xiaoping Deng. Educational Reform in Post-Mao China. New Dehli: A.P.H. Publishing Corporation, 2007. Print.

Hayhoe, Ruth. Contemporary Chinese education. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2007. Print.

Reagan, Timothy G.. Non-Western educational traditions indigenous approaches to educational thought and practice. 3rd ed. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005. Print.

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Children who experience parental verbal abuse

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Children look to their parents and often mimic their behaviors, using what they see their parents engage in to influence or justify their own behaviors or thoughts. Specifically, how parents interact with each other and their children can impact a child’s behaviors, thoughts, and later lifestyle. While many studies focus on the many issues associated with children exposed to parental violence, recent studies suggest negative outcomes for children who experience parental verbal abuse. These studies suggest that physical abuse from parents is not the only dangerous form of abuse; parents who verbally abuse their children also create developmental, social, and psychological problems within their children. Recent work also presents findings regarding changes in brain structure from parental verbal abuse. These findings point out that verbal abuse is more detrimental than previously thought, leading to physical changes rather than only emotional and psychological changes in the child and throughout their adolescents.

Introduction

A majority of children experience a physical abuse from their parents, which affect the social, as well as, their psychological lives (Jenny, 2011). Physical abuse occurs when an individual, in this case a parent or guardian uses the threat of physical force or physical pain to intimidate a child. According to Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman (2010), physical abuse refers to non-accidental or intentional physical injury that ranges from minor injuries to severe fractures or even death. This implies that physical abuse is dangerous to the lives of children and other victims who may experience it. These arise as a result of beating, punching, biting, kicking, throwing, shaking, choking, hitting, stabbing, burning or otherwise what may be termed as harming a child inflicted by a parent, caregiver, or other individuals responsible for a child. Such harm is considered abuse in spite of whether the person responsible for the child had intentions of hurting the child. Thus, physical abuse is abusive whether physical damage or bruises occur or not. However, physical discipline including paddling is not regarded as abuse as long as it is logical and results to no bodily harm to the child (Giardino et al., 2010).

However, it has been noted that physical abuse is not the only form of abuse that can cause critical negative consequences for the child. Other forms include neglect, which refers to failure of a caregiver or parent to provide basic needs to the child. Physical neglect implies failure to give required shelter, food, clothing, or even lack of proper supervision. Medical neglect is the failure to give necessary mental or medical health treatment. Educational neglect is failure to attend to a child’s special education needs or failure to offer education to a child. On the other hand, emotional neglect is lack of attending to the child’s emotional needs or lack of providing psychological care such as love (Newton and Gerrits, 2011). Although some forms of neglect have to do with cultural factors influence, the welfare of the child in all aspects is essential. Practices of sexual abuse such as penetration, rape, sodomy, incest exposure, fondling of a child’s genitals and exploitation may form part of physical abuse. Other forms of abuse that affect the child are substance abuse, abandonment and emotional or psychological abuse that make the child feel rejected and threatened in family and society at large. These are also dangerous to the child.

It has been proven that physical abuse is not the only dangerous form of abuse for a child. Verbal abuse is common among children and has a lot of negative implication for the child’s present and future lives. Children depend on their caregivers, parents, or those who care for them or love them to tell them who they are. The developing self-esteem of a child is based on the beliefs and expectations of his or her parents. Children who are exposed to verbal abuse from their parents or guardians are susceptible to lowered confidence and poor self image within themselves. The more the persistence and earlier the verbal abuse, the higher the likelihood of impairing the child’s development academically, socially, and psychologically (Evans, 2010). Whether children are helped to establish a compassionate observer who helps them in handling frustrations, is highly a consequence of parental modeling and messaging. Verbal abuse significantly contributes to the development of an internal critic who incriminates a child during times of stress and frustration.

Verbal abuse also known as verbal aggression occurs when parents use body language or words to improperly criticize their children (Sturt, 2006). It frequently entails ‘putdowns’ and name-calling deliberated at making the victim (child) feel they are not worthy of respect or love, and that they do not have talent or ability. According to Sturt (2006), if the children happen to speak against the statements, they are told the criticisms were only a joke. The children may as well be told that no abuse is happening. Verbal abuse is dangerous because as it is frequently not seen as abuse, and hence it can carry on for long periods of time causing significant damaging effects to the child’s self-worth and self-esteem. Children who are victims of verbal abuse may fail to take advantages of chances that would develop their lives as they hold the belief that they are not worthy of those opportunities (Evans, 2010).

Some forms of verbal abuse include belittling, name-calling, insulting, and swearing. This is indirect criticism and hurts the child as the child hears these and keeps it in mind. Another type of verbal abuse is threatening or rejecting with abandonment. Such words such as “I wish you were never born or I should put you up for adoption’ may sound simple, but have significant implications for a child. This form of verbal abuse develops the reasoning that the child does not belong and is not needed in the family. Studies from various scholars have associated verbal aggression with physical aggression (Iwaniec, 2006). Thus, threatening bodily harm directed towards a child is dangerous because even if a parent does not act on violent threats, he or she makes the child fear and lose trust in the parent.

In addition, blaming or scape-goating makes a child think and feel like he or she is not a good person and deserves to be unhappy. This may include words such as “You are the reason why this family is in chaos”. Use of sarcasm that is making mocking remarks may appear as ways of avoiding direct criticism, but children are adequately perceptive to comprehend that they are being demeaned. Another form of verbal abuse, but which is indirect, has to do with berating of spouses (Iwaniec, 2006). Children who see or hear their parents abusing each other verbally are likely to become anxious or depressed, and to experience other interpersonal problems.

Verbal abuse is dangerous just as physical abuse, and causes psychological effects to children such as depression, anxiety, and mood disorders. Verbal abuse also causes developmental effects including poor brain development. Additionally, it brings about social effects including low self-esteem, difficulties in establishing relationships, and makes victims uncomfortable in groups of individuals. On the other hand, the physical effects of verbal abuse include brain changes such as white matter tract abnormalities and gray matter volume increases in superior temporal gyrus. Other effects that fall under the four categories include delinquency, substance abuse, physical aggression, and social problems (Evans, 2010).

Psychological Effects

It is argued that verbal abuse leaves children forever changed. This implies that verbal abuse has both short and long-term effects. Among the psychological effects that victims of verbal abuse experience are depression, anxiety, and mood disorders. Depression refers to severe dejection that is followed by feelings of hopelessness among children. It is a situation of mental disturbance and has a lot of negative consequences on children on almost all aspects of life. Children who have been abused verbally are likely to feel depressed even in their later lives as studies have indicated. Although a majority of children feel depressed out of physical abuse, it is essential to note that verbal abuse contributes significantly in influencing depression among children. Additionally, children who are verbally abused also suffer from anxiety (Iwaniec, 2006). This arises out of fear that is created within them by their parents, which makes children to also feel insecure even in their own homes. Children become worried, nervous and are not at ease about events that may likely happen. Verbal abuse makes victims have mood disorders causing children to react differently on different situations. In most cases, the reactions that children portray are a result of low self-esteem that they are unable to control. This shows how dangerous verbal abuse can be in influencing behavior and reactions to different situations. Victims of verbal abuse get angry over minor issues and at the extreme become violent.

Developmental Effects

It has been proven that verbal abuse causes developmental effects on children. A child needs to feel loved and cared for at all times. Verbal abuse is one of the ways that children may feel that they are neither loved nor cared for by their parents. Children who experience physical and verbal abuse may feel untrusting, disregarded, powerless, and at times feel like they are a burden to their parents or guardians (Krumins, 2011). This influences their growth and development in that they may experience poor brain development. Poor brain development makes children perform poorly in all areas and especially in academics and social lives. Poor or strained brain development influences a child’s thinking and reasoning. In this case, children who are victims of verbal abuse are likely to have difficulties in logical thinking and reasoning as a result of poor brain development. At times, developmental effects of verbal abuse on children may be classified as psychological effects since the effects affect the psychological wellbeing of individuals. Poor brain development is likely to be exhibited even in later lives of victims of verbal abuse due to poor reasoning of individuals at all levels especially in discussions.

Social Effects

Some of the social effects caused by verbal abuse include low self-esteem, difficulties in establishing relationships. Verbal abuse also makes victims uncomfortable in groups of individuals including their peers (Krumins, 2011). Low self-esteem means that children do not feel as good as other children who have not been abused verbally, physically, or any other form of abuse. Children with self-esteem feel hopeless and think that they are not worthy. This starts right from the home where children who experience or have experienced verbal abuse feel that they do not belong to the family and cannot be appreciated. Low-self esteem affects children even in their social lives in that victims do not trust in themselves. This is what makes it hard for the victims to establish good and lasting relationships with other individuals. In fact, victims of verbal violence feel uncomfortable while in groups. They feel weak and do not think that they are able to contribute anything that will be appreciated by others.

Physical Effects

Physical abuse has significant physical effects on individuals. However, the physical effects that are a consequence of verbal abuse cannot be neglected. These include white matter tract abnormalities and gray matter volume increases in superior temporal gyrus. Victims of verbal abuse are exposed to higher risk of psychopathology, especially mood and anxiety disorders. Additionally, verbal abuse is associated with alteration of the structure of the brain. It causes traumatic events in children that are associated with alterations in the functional activity of regions of the brain (Krumins, 2011). This can have serious and dangerous damage to children.

Conclusion

Physical abuse is dangerous for children in their present and later lives. This is because it causes considerable negative effects to their lives. However, it is not physical abuse alone that is dangerous for children. Rather, verbal abuse has been proven to be dangerous, as well. This is explained in the adverse social, developmental, psychological, and physical effects that are associated with verbal aggression towards children. Therefore, it is high time that people consider verbal abuse as dangerous form of abuse since it is not regarded as abusive, but has dangerous consequences on children. The different forms of verbal aggression should be considered as dangerous and actions taken to ensure that these are dealt with appropriately to avoid the negative effects on children as they belong to society. Children also need to know that this is abusive and should report this when it is necessary. Therefore, it is clear that it is not only physical abuse that is dangerous, but also verbal abuse, as Well.

References

Jenny, C. (2011). Child abuse and neglect: Diagnosis, treatment, and evidence. St. Louis, Mo: Saunders/Elsevier.

Zastrow, C., & Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (2010). Understanding human behavior and the social environment. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.

Giardino, A. P., Lyn, M. A., & Giardino, E. R. (2010). A practical guide to the evaluation of child physical abuse and neglect. New York: Springer.

Newton, S., & Gerrits, J. (2011). Child abuse. St. Catharines, Ont: Crabtree Pub. Co.

Sturt, S. M. (2006). Child abuse: New research. New York: Nova Science Publishers.

Evans, P. (2010). The verbally abusive relationship: How to recognize it and how to respond. Avon, Mass: Adams Media.

Iwaniec, D. (2006). The Emotionally Abused and Neglected Child: Identification, Assessment and Intervention: A Practice Handbook. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

Krumins, I. (2011). The Detrimental Effects of Emotional Abuse: Emotional Abuse Is the Foundation of All Other Abuses, the Worse Being Elder Abuse. Authorhouse.

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The struggle for Democratic Politics in the Dominican Republic

Chapter Five Summary

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The struggle for Democratic Politics in the Dominican Republic

The Chapter primarily focuses on the struggle for politics of democracy in Dominica. This represents the social evolution and political rules of the country. Most individuals are aware of political democracy. However, only a few understand what the term neopatrimonialism means. A neopatrimonial ruler is one who rules a nation as if it were an extension of his or her own household. Neopatrimonial rule has been common in the Dominican Republic, whereas democracy has been scarce. The tragic history of foreign occupation, civil wars, and economic ruin in the nineteenth century of the country can explain the reason as to why neopatrimonial rulers emerged in the country. For instance, Rafael Trujillo who ruled from 1930 to 1961 took most productive industries and many of the best agricultural lands as his own. Additionally, Trujillo had more statues in public places than any other leader in the world and also made the Guinness Book of World Records.

In 1962, after the assassination of Trujillo, free elections were held and Juan Bosch won. However, the democratic rule, which he led, survived for only seven months and was overthrown. In 1966, Joaquin Balaguer, a former collaborator of Trujillo took over the presidency and ruled in a neopatrimonial, although less brutal, style. This was after the intervention of the United States in 1965. This was a disappointment to the citizens of the country and the entire nation as the earlier hopes that the end of the era of Trujillo in 1961 would bring political democracy were disappointed. In 1978, there was a transfer of power from one political power to another. The nonviolent transfer of power from one political party to another was first in the country’s history. The defeat of Balaguer was viewed as a democratic transition. The inauguration of the new president led to some changes in the government. For instance, several generals were removed from office. In addition, the political role of the military in the nation was receded. However, Balaguer resumed his position in 1986, through elections held in the same year. As a ruler and leader, Balaguer evolved in special historical and social circumstances. The nation went through the collapse of the dictatorship by Trujillo, a foreign military war, and a civil war. The bourgeoisie and the local oligarchy were incapable of filling the political vacuum, and, with support from the United States, Balaguer became the undisputed political leader. He sought for modernization and democracy, which Dominican citizens had lacked during Trujillo’s era.

During Balaguer’s rule, he undertook unprecedented programs on public works, building bridges, building roads, schools, libraries, housing projects, museums, parks, theatres, and sports complexes. All these led to heavy debts, as well as, an endangered economy. Despite charges of electoral fraud, Balaguer was able to maintain the presidency of the Dominican Republic. This caused intense international pressure on his rule, and he agreed to rule for only two years. Balaguer was able to exercise his rule in the country until in 1996, when he stepped down from power following his health conditions. The three political rules represented in the country are neopatrimonialism, authoritarianism, and international vulnerability. This implies the struggle for democratic politics in the Republic that has caused a shift from one form of political rule to another.

References

http://www.questia.com/read/57225939/the-struggle-for-democratic-politics-in-the-dominican

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