FACTORS AFFECTING IMPLEMENTATION OF REAL ESTATE DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA

 

 

A CASE STUDY OF JACARANDA GARDENS ESTATE

 

BY

 

GRACE WAMBUI KIHORO

NRB/DPM/40591

 

 

RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DIPLOMA IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT SUBMITTED TO THE KENYA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT

 

 

 

 

SEPTEMBER 2013

DECLARATION BY CANDIDATE

 

This proposal is my original work and has not been presented to any institution for any other examination body. No part of this research should be reproduced without my consent or that of the Kenya Institute of Management.

 

 

Name:……………………… ….    Signature: …………   Date: …………………

 

 

                                                       

 

 

DECLARATION BY SUPERVISOR

 

This research proposal has been submitted for examination with my approval as the Kenya Institute of Management supervisor.

 

 

 

Lecturer’s name: ……………… Signature: ………………… Date: ……………..

 

 

 

 

For and on behalf of The Kenya Institute of Management

 

 

 

Name: …………………     Signature: …………………         Date: ……………..

 

Branch Manager

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DEDICATION

 

I dedicate this research paper to my family which has been my pillar of strength from the beginning of my diploma course.

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to thank the almighty God for granting me the opportunity to undertake my studies at the Kenya Institute of Management and completing the research project on time. I wish to thank my supervisor Mr. Ngigi for his professional guidance and encouragement throughout this process of preparing my research project. I would also like to thank my cousin Mwangi for his constant encouragement and assistance that helped me through this process and everyone else who made this project a success. Finally, I wish to thank the Kenya Institute of Management for the provision of a good learning environment and learning materials from the library and to all those respondents who participated in the provision of necessary information required for the completion of this work.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT

Real estate industry is recognized globally for taking a critical role in social, political and economic development. The real estate industry plays primal role in providing employment opportunities, enhancing income distribution and alleviating poverty all over the world. However, the real estate industry in Kenya continues to fail to fulfill this fundamental role due to a number of unique factors that affect investment in the sector. The aim of this study was to examine factors that affect implementation of real estate development in Kenya. The factors identified in this study include financial, government policies, and marketing factors.

 

Descriptive research method will be utilized to undertake the study. The design is preferred as it involves answering questions such as who, how, what which, when and how much. It also entails complete description of the situation, thus limiting the level of biasness in the collection of data and an eventual reduction of errors in interpreting the data collected. Forty five Questionnaires will be used in the collection of data. Stratified random sampling will be undertaken in selecting samples. The researcher will select 45 participants as the sample size from the jacaranda gardens estate located at Kamiti Road in Nairobi area 254 in Nairobi. The findings of the study will show from the correlation analysis that government policies factors had the greatest impact affecting implementation of real estate development followed by marketing factors, and finally the financial factors. The study concludes that although deregulation of this sector is a necessary condition for revival of a healthy real estate sector, deregulation cannot by itself ensure that a full range of factors affecting implementation of real estate development is solved.

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0  INTRODUCTION

This chapter gives background information to the study; provide statement of the problem, objectives, research questions, scope and significance of the study.

1.1 Background of the Study

The development of real estate industry is important for the overall development of a country. It contributes to employment, the development of commercial banking and ultimately to the development of capital markets. Most importantly, it increases the well-being of households by providing superior shelter and helping establish personal wealth – wealth that can be leveraged for creation of more wealth (Taylor, 2004).

It is important to point out that before we can expect development of a real estate industry, some prerequisites need to be in place. These include: first, defined property rights and the ability to transfer title of real estate; second, a legal system that supports the enforcement of contracts as well as support the ability of lenders to foreclose on defaulted loans and efficiently seize and resell collateral; and finally, a stable macroeconomic environment that is favourable to long term real estate development and subsequently mortgage market. The primary focus of this study, however, is not the aforementioned perquisites but ratherto examine to factors influencing the implementation of real estate development in Kenya.

Kenya has a well-developed construction and building industry with readily available quality engineering, building and architectural design services. The industry is currently on an upward trend, due to the implementation of programs such as the Urban Transport Infrastructure plan. The increase in population and rural to urban migration has presented numerous opportunities for investors, especially in the housing sector.It is projected that Kenya will have a population of over 60 million people by the year 2030 and more than 50% of them Will be  living in urban areas, creating a huge demand for new housing units. It is estimated Nairobi alone requires approximately 150,000 new housing units per year against a maximum construction of about 10,000 units per year.

In a study conducted by Mbugua (2006),  it is estimated that over 80% of Kenyan population will have migrated from rural areas, meaning that that shelter is one of their basic needs. Presently, slum dwellers are1/3 of the urban dwellers population whereby Kenya’s Kibera slum is one of the largest dwelling in Africa yet only approximately three million people are urban dwellers. Hence, as rural urban migration occurs more houses that are well constructed must be built to combat slum uprising problem. The real estate industry should be supported and it will have to grow at a faster pace that it currently does. The Kenya industry is benefiting from economic growth of the country and the inflow of foreign aid is being regarded as a very promising venture.

1.1.1 Profile of Jacaranda gardens estate

The jacaranda garden estate is one of the most successful estates in Kenya. It comprises of 840 units comprising of two, three and four bedroom apartments. It is built on 20 acres of scenic land that combines function and aesthetics, incorporates over 40% of expansive manicured lawns, mature gardens, dedicated recreation spaces and pedestrian routes.  Jacaranda Gardens’ recreation and commercial centre comes equipped with a state-of-the-art gymnasium, business centre, restaurants, meeting rooms, hospital, nursery school, and a swimming pool. The scheme comprises modern security and communication technology throughout, comprising CCTV, fibre optic cable access to all houses, automated gate and main door access

1.2.      Statement of the problem

In recent years the population of Kenya has steadily increased, resulting to the urban population in Nairobi to a record of 3 million, whereby all these people need shelter, hence the real estate industry is doing well and contributing to the economy (Nuri, Erbas & Frank Nothaft, 2002).  Despite recent indication that the real estate business in Kenya is performing well, there is evidence that certain challenges persist. These include amongst others, social, economic, cultural, legal and personal factors. This has led to stalled projects and unoccupied complete properties. This being an important industry that makes enormous contribution to the Kenyan economy, there are some gaps in the literature that ought to be filled, these includes: the available literature has not indicated ways in which real estate enterprises can be empowered to compete on equal levels with established businesses, (Mwangi, 2002).

This study, therefore, examines the factors influencing implementation of Real Estate development in Kenya, using a case of Jacaranda Gardens Estate Nairobi. It is expected that the gaps are established and appropriate measures recommended for purposes of improving investment in real estate in the country.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.1. General Objectives

The general objective of the study was to determine the factors influencing implementation of real estate development in Kenya.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study are:

i.            To examine how funding influence investment in the real estate industry in Nairobi County.

ii.            To assess how government policies influence implementation of real estate development in Nairobi.

iii.            To determine how market influences implementation of real estate development in Nairobi.

iv.            To examine how interest rates influences implementation of real estate projects in Nairobi.

 

Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

i.            What is the effect of financial factors on implementation of real estate projects in Nairobi?

ii.            To what extent do government policies influence implementation of real estate development?

iii.            How does marketing influence implementation of real estate development?

iv.            What is the impact of interest rates on implementation of real estate projects?

1.4.Significance of the Study

1.4.1.      Benefit Stakeholders and Players in the Industry

The findings of the study will be useful to the stakeholders and players in Real Estate Industry. The study will reveal the influence of economic, government policies and marketing in investing in real estate industry. There are many stake holders in the real estate industry and in various ways many of them are due to the benefit from the outcome of this research project. It is expected that this knowledge shall assist them in their day to day decision making process as they are expected to enhance the examined factors.

1.4.2.      Potential Investors

Potential investors will be able to analyze benefits accrued from investing in real estate industry. It is anticipated that the data and study will trigger discussions amongst would be investors and stakeholders who in turn will come up with appropriate strategies of channeling financial aid to the real estate business in a manner that will ensure that the investors get due profits ultimately. The study will allow investors who have invested capital to have an avenue for creating more wealth, hence will inform them of opportunities availed by the real estate industry.

1.4.3.      Other Enterprises in the Same Industry

This study will focus on those enterprises in the real estate industry hence will allow other enterprises in the same industry to have information that may affect them and therefore be able to implement the needed recommendation of the study or combat limitations that may affect them from the solutions that will have been prescribed. The enterprises will have information on issues that may affect them and hence be able to place measures or blockades to protect them from the issues and deal with the problems before they are affected.

1.4.4.      Source of Public Information

The public will have the chance to gather information on the real estate industry, hence the reference point. It will also show employment opportunities presented by the industry that they could take advantage of. The information will also benefit individuals intending to construct properties and be homeowners; they will have the study as reference point on the various players in the industry.

1.4.5.      Government

The government being the industry regulator is going to benefit from this research since the study hopes to show how the regulations that it has implemented affect investment in the real estate industry  and therefore be useful for future planning, and benchmarking activities in this important sector of the economy.

1.4.6.      Other Researchers

This area of study has not been previously studied adequately hence it will add to the pool of knowledge on the under researched area of factors influencing investment in real estate industry. Future researchers will have a reference point from the information gathered that will contribute to understanding the factors as well as contributing to subsequent studies. It forms a basis for and stimulates research in order to develop a better understanding of factors influencing investment in the real estate industry.

1.5 Limitations of the Study

One limitation of the study will be in getting information from community participants since most of them perceive strangers with suspicion. Another limitation of the study is that the participants were reluctance to cooperate and fitting into the busy schedule of the respondents

1.6 Scope of the Study

The study will mainly focus on how marketing, financing and government policies influence investing in the real estate industry in Nairobi, currently there are over 50 real estate industry developers registered by the ministry of planning and national development. The study will target the Jacaranda Gardens Estate in Nairobi. It was done between July and September 2013.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter starts with a general overview of the real estate industry.  Then the chapter unveils information on the status of the real estate industry in Kenya. This chapter also has a summary of the conceptual framework of the study.

2.2 Real Estate Investment

It is possible to identify three broad streams within the real estate literature. The first stream encompasses studies, which focus on real estate as an asset class within the life-cycle consumption model. The second stream focuses on the owner-occupier/tenant portfolio choice of households. The third stream is directed towards public policy and the provision of low-rent or public housing.

 

Lustig & Van Nieuwerburgh (2005) examines real estate as an asset class within household portfolios. In turn, this implies that the market price of risk will rise and the household will reallocate its portfolio, placing greater weight on less risky assets. It is expected that the impact of solvency variable become more important during poor economic conditions, such as the economic recession of the early 1990s and for more tightly constrained households.

 

According to Brueckner, (1997), most of the tenure choice studies are cast in a partial equilibrium setting in which the supply of owner occupied housing is assumed to be perfectly elastic and is not generally addressed. The supply side of the market is addressed in general equilibrium models, such as those discussed in Berkovec (2009) empirical evidence suggests, that investors may over-invest in real estate (Taylor, 1998). Such portfolio inefficiency is not necessarily attributable to irrational behavior on the part of homeowners. As outlined in Henderson & Ioannides (2003) the quantity of housing owned must be at least as large as the amount of housing consumed. The homeowner must balance the consumption benefits of the asset with the indivisibility of the housing investment. A higher marginal propensity to consume from housing as compared to financial assets provides further rationale for households to accumulate a higher concentration of assets in housing.

 

Despite the high weighting of owner-occupied housing in household portfolios, most of the literature on real estate as an asset class relates to the performance, pricing and management of diversified real estate investment trusts (REITs) (Benjamin et al 2004). As with other risky assets, the beta of the REIT security is important for assessing performance and for asset allocation decisions (Chiang et. al 2005). Following studies such as McIntosh et al (1991) which reported that betas were declining, Chiang et al undertook an analysis of the time-series properties of EREITs using both the single-factor model and the three-factor model of Fama and French (1993). Their results indicate that the betas estimated with the three-factor model are more stable than those estimated with the one-factor model and they conclude EREIT betas do exhibit long term stability.

 

Meyer & Wieand (1996) show that in a competitive economy with well-diversified landlords, the returns from non-diversifiable housing investments were priced according to a constant marginal price of risk. This result implies that the offer price for a house with riskier returns were lower than the price of a similar house with less risky returns.

 

Two core public policy issues are addressed in this literature. The first is whether a more deregulated housing market will result in greater provision of low-rent housing. The second issue is whether these small investors should be supported by the public sector. Berry (2000),  Berry & Hall (2005) identify elements of public policy that are particularly relevant to the provision of low-rent cost public housing in Australia. Van Der Heijden & Boelhouwer (1996) who review and assess the private rental sectors of seven European countries give an international perspective.

 

These studies conclude that the expected return from investing in residential income property is increasing. This improved outlook is associated with a swing in government policy away from public provision of rental housing to the private provision of rental housing. However, the authors argue that the expansion of investment in residential income property may not result in the provision of more low-cost housing. A similar point is discussed in Crook & Kemp (1996), who analyze the decline and partial revival of the private rental sector in the UK. They conclude that although deregulation of this sector was a necessary condition for revival of a healthy rental sector, deregulation cannot by itself ensure that a full range of rental accommodation is provided. This raises the question: should small income property investors be subsidized to provide low-rent housing?

Yates (1996) explores the role of private residential income property investors in the supply of low-rent housing in Australia. From analyzing survey data, Yates concludes that small investors (including unintentional investors, such as those temporarily renting out their main place of residence) are significant suppliers of low-income housing. In contrast, she argues that the short term mandates of fund managers make them unresponsive to the long-term returns generated from residential income property through capital appreciation. In her view, it may therefore be reasonable to encourage individual property owners rather than institutional ones. A favorable taxation regime for these small investors would reinforce their perception that their investment was long term and secure.

2.3 Factors influencing the real estate industry investment

2.3.1 Financial Factors

A major challenge in real estate industry is financing, both at development stage and in end-user finance. Kenya has only two financial institutions specializing in real estate funding. These are Savings and Loans (S & L) and Housing Finance Corporation of Kenya. The former merged with its mother company, the Kenya Commercial Bank on 1st January, 2010 which now only leaves the latter as the only stand-alone real estate finance company. Because of the limited financing options, the real estate industry in Kenya has been characterized by rigid financing conditions and relatively high interest rates. Margret (2005) states that in business there is need to put capital aside for the growing of the business in response to the demand of which small scale business operators do not have. Taro (2004) states that the lack of capital is a problem for small and micro business enterprises therefore most have remained operating in small scale.

Capital is a major factor in the day-to-day practice of any business. The real estate enterprise requires investing huge amounts of capital in order to allow construction of property. Lack of finance for the business will lower its credibility hence face problems whilst negotiating credit duration of construction materials, or when negotiating bank loans and guarantees are based on the financial base of any business. Gaulick & Margret (2005) point hold weight in that real capital comprises of physical goods that assist in the production of other goods and services e.g. Machinery and tools for constructing buildings.

The other challenge has been with regard to building technologies and materials used in the Kenyan building industry. All buildings in Nairobi are constructed using conventional building materials (concrete blocks or building stones for walling and tiles or corrugated coated iron sheets for roofing). This technology is characterized by high cost of materials and long periods for construction. There is need to adopt newer technologies for building construction and the Government of Kenya has already authorized use of such technologies and is at the same time promoting their use, especially outside Nairobi. However, the situation in Nairobi is different as there is a need to change the Nairobi City Council By-laws before the use of these new technologies can be commercialized within the city.

Demand for real estate is derived from the basic need of human beings. Shelter is required for all human activities. The demand for real estate can respond to changes in price but is rather inelastic compared to other commodities. This is because there are a few participants in real estate market so that it is possible to have periods where only buyers and sellers respectively control the market, while the process is complex and expensive due to property taxes.

Demand for low housing in Nairobi far outstrips supply. Demand is so large that approximately 50% of Nairobi’s more than 3.3 million residents live in slums. Demand for middle income is also extremely high. For these two market segments, there exists huge demand gap. It is estimated that Nairobi alone requires approximately 150,000 new housing units per year against a maximum construction of about 10,000 units per year.

To satisfy its urban housing needs, the Government of Kenya is encouraging innovative and proactive strategies to meet the challenge of reducing the national housing deficit of 200,000 housing units per year to manageable levels. The current deficit translates to an average of 550 units per day for urban sector, with Nairobi alone experiencing a deficit of 410 units per day. Narrowing this deficit is not a mean target and any units of houses completed within the greater Nairobi will therefore contribute positively towards reduction of the shortfall.

2.3.2 Government policies

The government is a huge force that affects the running of a business enterprise. It enforces taxes in real estate based on the incomes, which sometimes are prohibitive to interested investors. The government being a regulatory body also has laws that real estate businesses must adhere to such as planning regulations, permits for land use, titles deeds for land ownership and rules that businesses adhere to e.g. registration of the business. Legislation is also another factor that can have a sizable impact on property demand and prices.

Tax credits, deductions, and subsidies are some of the ways the government can temporarily boost demand for real estate for as long as they are in place. Being aware of current government incentives can help you determine changes in supply and demand and identify potentially false trends. For example, in 2009, the U.S. government introduced a first-time homebuyer’s tax credit to homeowners in an attempt to jump-start home sales in a sluggish economy.

According to the National Association of Realtors (NAR), this tax incentive alone led to 900,000 homebuyers to buy homes. This was quite a sizable increase, although temporary, and without knowing the increase was a result of the tax incentive, you may have ended up concluding that the demand for housing was going up based on other factors.

Okatch (2002) says that there are three aspects of the political environment, which can affect an entrepreneur’s ability to carry out its business activity, the influence of pressure group and politics of a country, and those of the internal environment do affect business.  The government is also a big market for the business community. According to Margret (2005), policies are tools for setting standards in the provision of public goods and services; they protect consumers, investors and the public while by-laws set controls that ensure that urban areas are safe and clean.

Dorothy et al. (2007) say that policies that affect the business environment in Kenya can conveniently be grouped into four broad categories that is; macroeconomic policies which include inflation and money supply policies, interest rate policies, credit policies and business income tax,. There are also incentive policies for example banking and financial laws and requirement on collateral or security. The institutional policies are licensing, registration requirement, product standards and certification and infrastructure policies including utility development and land policies.

 

2.3.3 Markets

The market to target is the lower middle income and middle income segments of the population. These comprise mainly of high school, tertiary education diploma and university level graduates who are employed or in own business and would like to live in their own houses. The number is large and major criteria for buying are affordability while not sacrificing too much on quality. Estimates put these two market segments at more than 85% of the 150,000 units required each year for the City of Nairobi and its environs. This segment of the market will easily accept houses built on space frame technology.

It is imperative to adopt both strategic and tactical marketing plans in the drive to dispose of the units in the shortest possible time. In the strategic marketing plan, emphasis was placed on the target markets and the value proposition that the new development promises to offer based on the analysis of the best market opportunities. The tactical marketing plan on the other hand lays more emphasis on the marketing tactics, including product features, promotion, merchandising, pricing, sales channels and service.

The units available for sale should be sold on the basis of “on and off plan” where purchasers commit to buy the units during the construction period prior to completion. Purchasers were encouraged to pay an initial deposit to reserve the plot for development. As construction progresses, purchasers will further be required to pay a minimum of 10% down payments for the residual price of   each unit with the balance of purchase price payable on completion of the development or as construction progresses. To accelerate sales during this period, use of appropriate marketing tools were employed including use of competent estate management consultants.

The pricing of the units were the key factor in marketing the development. The project should aim to sell the units at the most competitive prices. These were houses targeting lower middle and middle-income earners and our surveys and available statistics reveal that a very large customer base exists in Nairobi and its environs. What is crucial is affordability and the houses must be appealing to would be buyers.

2.3.4. Interest Rates

Interest rates also have a major impact on the implementation of real estate development. Changes in interest rates can greatly influence a person’s ability to purchase a residential property. That is because as the interest rates fall, the cost to obtain a mortgage to buy a home decreases, which creates a higher demand for real estate, which pushes prices up. Conversely, as interest rates rise, the cost to obtain a mortgage increases, thus lowering demand and prices of real estate. However, when looking at the impact of interest rates on an equity investment such as a real estate investment trust (REIT), rather than on residential real estate, the relationship could be thought of as similar to a bond’s relationship with interest rates.

 

When interest rates decline, the value of a bond goes up because its coupon rate becomes more desirable, and when interest rates increase, the value of bonds decrease. Similarly, when the interest rate decreases in the market, REITs’ high yields become more attractive and their value goes up. When interest rates increase, the yield on an REIT becomes less attractive and it pushes their value down. The most evident impact of interest rates on real estate values can be seen in the derivation of discount or capitalization rates. The capitalization rate can be viewed as an investor’s required dividend rate, while a discount rate equals an investor’s total return requirements. K usually denotes RROR, while the capitalization rate equals (K-g), where g is the expected growth in income or the increase in capital appreciation.
Each of these rates is influenced by prevailing interest rates because they are equal to the risk-free rate plus a risk premium. For most investors, the risk-free rate is the rate on government; these are guaranteed by the credit of the government, so they are considered risk-free because the probability of default is so low. Because higher risk investments must achieve a commensurably higher return to compensate for the additional risk borne, when determining discount rates and capitalization rates, investors add a risk premium to the risk-free rate to determine the risk-adjusted returns necessary on each investment considered.

 

Since K (discount rate) is equal to the risk-free rate plus a risk premium, the capitalization rate is equal to the risk-free rate plus a risk premium, less the anticipated growth (g) in income. Although risk premiums vary as a result of supply and demand and other risk factors in the market, discount rates will vary due to changes in the interest rates that make them up. When the required returns on competing or substitute investments rise, real estate values fall; conversely, when interest rates fall, real estate prices increase.

 

Most retail investors, especially homeowners, focus on changing mortgage rates because they have a direct influence on real estate prices. However, interest rates also affect the availability of capital and the demand for investment. These capital flows influence the supply and demand for property and, as a result, they affect property prices. In addition, interest rates also affect returns on substitute investments, and prices change to stay in line with the inherent risk in real estate investments. These changes in required rates of return for real estate also vary during periods of destabilization in the credit markets. As investors foresee increased variability in future rates or increase in risk, risk premiums widen, putting increased downward pressure on property prices.

 

2.4. Critical Review

This study seeks to address gaps identified from review of past studies. All the past studies reviewed have focused on Africa and Kenya. The studies reviewed have also been very specific on identifying factors affecting implementation of real estate projects in particular. The studies also identify some factors affecting implementation of all real eastate projects in general within Nairobi area. This study will be specific in assessing factors that affect specifically implementation of real estate development in jacaranda gardens estate located at Kamiti Road in Nairobi.

 

2.5. Summary

The above review of past studies has identified that the  policies adopted by the government has great impact on the implementation of real estate development in the sense that it enforces taxes in real estate based on the incomes. These taxes are sometimes very prohibitive and discourage investors. The government can however boost implementation of real estate development through offering tax credits, deductions, and subsidies to real estate investors. Funding is another major challenge affecting implementation of real estate development, as there are few institutions offering finances to investors in the real estate industry. In addition, the market has a significant effect on the implementation of real estate project as the quality of the houses should be balanced with the affordability of such houses by the lower middle income and middle income population.

2.6. Conceptual Framework

For this research, the dependent variable is the investment in the real estate industry in Nairobi, while the independent variables are the factors, which include economic, government policies and markets and marketing.

     Independent variables                                                     Dependent variable

Funding/ Financing

Influence

 

Implementation of Real Estate Projects

Government Policies

 

 

Markets

 

 

 

 

Figure 2.1: Source: developed for the study (2013)

Operationalization of variables

                                                                                                

Financial factors to be considered in this study include; the availability of investment funds interest rates, taxes, income levels especially of the target population, costs of building materials, cost accrued or brought forward, Profit margin and the general Appreciation rate of houses. Government polices to be considered in the study includes; government taxes especially those influencing real estate investment, government planning regulations, permits for land use, title deeds for land ownership, rules that businesses adhere to e.g. registration of the business and individual commitment.

 

Different real estate companies use different marketing techniques. This study is going to focus on a number of aspects. These aspects include marketing strategies such as targeting the middle income level market; taking advantage of the space frame technology to sell more units; having both a strategic and a shortest possible time tactical plan to dispose the units; giving out promotions, merchandising. The study shall also examine the use pricing as a marketing tool availability of a plan to enable unit purchase before their completion, low initial deposits to attract many customers and the use of estate management consultants to increase outreach.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter highlights the methodology, which was used in data collection, analysis and presentation. It also highly depicts the research design, target population, sampling design, limitations and delimitations of the study, ethical issues consideration and the expected outcome of the study.

 3.2 Research design

In this study, a descriptive research design was adopted. The goal of a descriptive design as explained by Sekaran (2003) is to offer the researcher a profile to describe relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from an individual or industry-oriented perspective.This research was not only restricted to fact finding but also resulted in the formulation of knowledge and solutions to the problem under consideration.

3.3 Target Population

According to Mugenda & Mugenda (1999), target population is the complete set of individual cases or objects with some common characteristics to which the researcher wants to generalize the results of the study. The study targeted Jacaranda Gardens Estate in Nairobi County. For purposes of this study, four respondents were interviewed i.e. senior officer, assistant manager, director and senior manager.

3.4 Sampling Design

3.4.1 Sample

Jacaranda Gardens Estate in Nairobi has been chosen for reasons that most real estate businesses are located in this county. A sample of fourty five  participants were selected from the employees of Jacaranda Gardens Estate in Nairobi. Out of these employees, the senior and middle level management were selected as the key respondents since they are best knowledgeable concerning the challenges that face the industry. Further information was gathered from government officials of the Ministry of Lands and the Nairobi County Council.

3.4.2 Sampling Techniques

Since the sample is small i.e. 45, a census approach was used. All the participants were considered for the study, contractors, the senior and middle level managers was issued with questionnaires which they filled and formed the basis of the data. A non-Probability sampling technique such as purposive was also used to obtain further information from related institutions and regulatory bodies.

3.5 Data collection

3.5.1 Sources of Data

This study comprised both primary and secondary data. The primary data was collected using the process of interviews and questionnaires both in the offices and on site. The secondary data was gathered from theMinistry of Lands, Ministry of planning and National Development andNairobi City Council registry where we shall obtain data relevant to the number of registered contractors and on-going projects.

3.5.2 Data collection instruments

Data was collected using questionnaires and interviews. The questionnaire has been preferred since it enables coverage of population with little time, personnel and cost; anonymity of the respondents helps them to be honest with their responses; it avoids bias due to characteristics of interviews; and allows respondent enough time to answer questions to avoid hasty responses. Questionnaire had structured questions, which were easy for respondents to answer and helped the researcher to form an opinion and a conclusion. It also had unstructured questions that gave room for the respondents to give more information and clarify other aspects of his answers.

3.5.3 Research Procedures

The researcher dropped and collected the questionnaires from the respondents. This was possible since the location of the real estate enterprises is not very far from  the Central Business District and therefore easily accessible to the researcher and the fact that the sample size was manageable. To ensure that the respondents were able to fill in the questionnaires, simple language was used and confidentiality well communicated to them noting that the findings were purely used for research purposes. Interviews were also conducted with the top managers and officials from the regulatory bodies to obtain further information that may not necessarily be requested for in the questionnaire.

3.5.4 Validity and Reliability Assurance

 

Validity aims at ascertaining the extent to which the research instruments collects the data intended. Reliability aims at ascertaining consistency of responses collected by the instruments. Questionnaires were designed and pre-tested before the actual survey was conducted to enhance their validity and reliability. Pre-testing also helped in ensuring that the right concepts were measured in addition to making the instruments more clear and focused. Pilot testing (test-retest) involves conducting a preliminary test of data collection tools and procedures to identify and eliminate problems, allowing programs to make corrective changes or adjustments before actually collecting data from the target population.

The data was reliable as all the variables had a Cronbach Alpha value of greater than 0.800, which is the minimum value variables, must meet in order to be considered reliable.

 3.6 Data analysis Techniques

The researcher used the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) to analyze the data. The statistical method of Pearson Product of Correlation Coefficient was used to analyze relationship between various variables. SPSS and Excel were used to establish the factors influencing implementation of real estate development in Kenya. Pearson Product of Correlation Coefficient was used to determine the magnitude and direction of the relationship between the factors (independent variables) and investment in real estate industry in Kenya (dependent variable).

The regression analysis model

Y= α +β₁X₁+ β₂X₂+ β₃X₃+ β₃X₄+ Ԑ was used to determine the linear relationship between the variables

Where

Y= the dependent variable real estate investment

β (1-3) = regression coefficients

X₁= Independent variable financial factors

X₂= Independent variable government policies

X₃= Independent variable marketing

X₄= Independent variable interest rates

3.7 Data Presentation

After field work, all the questionnaires and interview schedules were checked for reliability and validity. The data has been presented by use of frequency tables, graphs and charts, which facilitate easy interpretation, and understanding of the information.

3.8 Ethical Issues of the Study

In order to observe research ethics, the researcher prepared confidentiality agreements to be signed by the respondents to satisfy their informed consent. In addition, authority was sought and obtained in advance from the respective institutions to authorize undertaking of the survey. The researcher frankly revealed any constraints in methodology and ensured that the information obtained is as objective and unbiased as much as possible.

3.9 Limitation/ Delimitation

There was suspicion from the respondents who might suspect that am spying on behalf of their competitors in the real estate industry. Limiting factors such as reluctance to cooperate may also be encountered during the research and fitting into the busy schedule of the respondents.

The delimitation of the above was to provide assurance of confidentiality to the respondents hence putting them at ease to freely answer questions and be cooperative. The researcher also ensured that the timing issue was addressed and managed with the respondents appropriately, so that it did not affect the quality of the study.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRES

SECTION 1

Background information

Tick as appropriate

1. Category of respondent

o  Director

o  Senior manager

o  Assistant manager

o  Senior officer

o  Other please specify……………………………………

Section 2: Real Estate Investment

2. Your company’s goals have been achieved in the midst of challenges in the time it has been in industry

o  Strongly Agree

o  Agree

o  Not Agree

o  Disagree

o  Strongly disagree

Section 3 Financial Factors

4. Does the economy affect investment in the real estate industry?

o  Strongly Agree

o  Agree

o  Not Agree

o  Disagree

o  Strongly disagree

5. What impact do the following factors have on real estate investment

	Very great impact (5)	Great impact (4)	Moderate impact (3)	Low impact (2)	Very Low impact (1)
Availability of investment funds
Taxes
Interest rates
Income levels
costs of building materials
Cost of labor
Accrued liabilities
Profit margin
Appreciation of houses

 

Section 4: Government policies

6. Do government policies influence real estate investment in Kenya

o  Strongly Agree

o  Agree

o  Not Agree

o  Disagree

o  Strongly disagree

7. To what extent do you agree with the following statements?

	Strongly disagree (5)	Disagree (4)	Uncertain (3)	Agree (2)	Strongly Agree (1)
Government taxes affect real estate investment
Government planning regulations affect real estate investment in Kenya
Permits for land use affect real estate investment in Kenya
Titles deeds for land ownership affect real estate investment in Kenya
Rules that businesses adhere to e.g. registration of the business affect real estate investment in Kenya
Individual commitment determines the prosperity of an entrepreneur
Government Tax credits, deductions and subsidies will help in boosting real estate investment

 Section 5: Marketing

8. Does marketing influence real estate investment in Kenya?

o  Strongly Agree

o  Agree

o  Not Agree

o  Disagree

o  Strongly disagree

 

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Air Emission Management Practical Problem

 

 

Name

 

 

Institution

 

 

Date

 

 

 

 

 

 

Executive Summary

The operations carried out by the Engineering Metal Company include: joist production, bridging, as well as deck production. The relevant parts of the New York state regulations 6NYCRR that pertains the aforementioned activities include Part 201, Part 212, Part 228 (which is relevant for purposed of surface coating operations) and Part 229 (applicable for storage of volatile organic liquid). The company intends to develop an air emission management program for purposes of controlling and mitigating contaminated emissions from the new plants that the company intend to introduce. These products are intended to be sold for framing purposes in huge commercial structures. For purposes of helping the company to develop a viable Air Emissions Management program, my team has been retained by the Engineering Metal Company and also to assist the company to comply with the set regulations, as well as finalize with the process of acquiring a permit.

 

Identification Emission Unit and Control Device

For purposes of indentifying the emission units and the viable control device, my team conducted a thorough review of the projected amount of emission from the new projects as well as the applicable regulations that touches such activities carried out by the Engineering Metal Company. From the review conducted by my team, a number of prospective emission sources in the Engineering Metal Company were established. These emission sources included: flow coaters, welding activities, drying ovens, and dip tanks in the joist production; In bridging operations the emission sources include vacuum coaters, as well as fire ovens; and from the deck production, emission sources include the painting and cleaning activities. After the review, my team recommended that the Engineering Metal Company should adopt extra measures for purposes of mitigating the amount of contaminants discharged in the air, and also apply from the New York state a Title V permit. These kinds of operations necessitate the Engineering Metal Company to meet the NSPS TT as a federal requirement.In the assessment carried out by my team, no pollution control devices were put in place for purposes of mitigating and controlling pollution from these operations.

 

The table below summarizes the estimated emissions from the Engineering Metal Company

 

CAS Number	Contaminant	PTE (Tons per Year)
000630-08-0	Carbon Monoxide	17
0NY100-00-0	Total HAPs	35
0NY210-00-0	Oxides of Nitrogen	>20
0NY075-00-5	PM-10	18
007446-09-5	Sulfur Dioxide	<1
0NY998-00-0	VOC	156

 

Following the proposed changes in the Engineering Metal Company to introduce the three operations which include; the joist production, bridging, as well as deck production, and the fact that site is situated at a non attachment area of moderate Ozone, there is need for review of permit requirements in light of additional new sources.  It should however be noted that the Engineering Metal Company was not required to apply for a Title V permit before the proposed changes. This is because; the company had already undertaken to comply with an emission chapter which is enforceable across all federal states pursuant to subsection 201- 7 which is to the effect that the emissions from a facility should not exceed the levels set out under the Title V permit issued  to the facility.

 

It should also be noted that the new projects in the Engineering Metal Company will be subjected to Subpart 231-5 of the federal regulations for emissions of HAPs and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). This is because the new projects are projected to exceed fifty tons

per year of Volatile Organic Compounds emissions. Prior to the introduction of the new projects the Engineering Metal Company did not discharge HAPs and Volatile Organic Compounds emissions that exceeded 100 and 50 tons per year respectively. Thus, the operations were not subjected to Subpart 231- 5. The emissions of fugitive Volatile Organic Compounds (VOSs) are commonly discharged during industrial activities that uses, produce, or stores Volatile Organic Compounds containing gasses or even liquids. Sources of such emissions may include among others; storage tanks, accidental release, as well as open mixing tanks and vats. In an effort to prevent and control of Volatile Organic Compounds emissions, it is recommended that the equipments should be modified accordingly, and a program of leak detection and repair (LDAR) should be implemented (Thad, 2007).

 

 

Emission and Operating Limits

For purpose of the company’s operations and emission limits, the company should acquire a Title V permit as aforementioned. Under the Title V permits certification there are a number of conditions that the company is required to comply with annually. Under the first condition, the applicable federal requirement is outlined under 6NYCRR 201-6. This regulation defines the term emission for purposes of this industry (Engineering Metal Company). The second condition is outlined under 6NYCRR 201-6.5(c), this condition requires that the Engineering Metal Company should keep the necessary records as well as reports of monitoring compliance. In addition, condition eight of the Title V permit is related to Volatile Organic Compounds which is captured under 6NYCRR 228.7. Further, the operations of surface coating should comply with the requirement outlined under 6NYCRR, Part 228.7. This federal requirement set the emission limit of VOC.

 

This program is a vital tool for purposes of controlling fugitive emissions through regular monitoring to identify any kind of leakages. For purposes of preventing and controlling Volatile Organic Compounds emissions emanating from using chemicals in open mixing processes as well as vats, several approaches are recommended which include;  use of substances that are less volatile like aqueous solvents,  vapor collection using air extractors. This should be followed by the extraction of Volatile Organic Compounds in the treatment of gas stream using activated carbon absorption or condensers.

Deck coating under 6NYCRR, Part 228.7, should not go beyond 2.6 lbs VOC/gal per gallon of coating. In addition, bridging coating and joist coating under the above federal requirement must not surpass the set threshold of 3.0 lbs VOC per gallon of coating or 3.5 lbs VOC/gal (air dried). This does not include solvents and water during application. The determination of compliance shall be calculated pursuant to 6 NYCRR, Part 228.2(b)(11). It should also be noted that 40CFR60 outlines the analytical methods that are acceptable for purposes of evaluating the water content, density weight of solids, volatile content, as well as density volume of solids of surface coatings. This program is a vital tool for purposes of controlling fugitive emissions through regular monitoring to identify any kind of leakages. For purposes of preventing and controlling Volatile Organic Compounds emissions emanating from using chemicals in open mixing processes as well as vats, several approaches are recommended which include;  use of substances that are less volatile like aqueous solvents,  vapor collection using air extractors. This should be followed by the extraction of Volatile Organic Compounds in the treatment of gas stream using activated carbon absorption or condensers.

 

All the new proposed projects must apply Lowest Achievable Emission Rate (LAER) under condition nine of the Title V permit. The federal requirement capturing this condition is 6NYCRR 231-2.5(a). In an effort to achieve this, the Engineering Metal Company coatings shall always adhere to the limits set out under the Lowest Achievable Emission Rate. The categorical standards of NESHAP sometimes referred to as MACT must be implemented in the new projects. The limits that shall apply under MACT the Engineering Metal Company include:

 

Flow coatings or water based dip coating shall be used in joist production and the two coatings shall not go beyond 4.5 lbs VOC/gallon of solids. The procedure outlined under 40CFR63, Subsection MMMM, should be applied. In an effort to exhibit VOC compliance the procedure in set out under the aforementioned subpart should be applied to convert references. In the bridging operations, water-based flow coatings shall be applied and they shall not exceed the limits set out under subpart MMMM, of 1.25 lbs VOC/gallon of solids. Finally, in the decking production, water-based coatings shall also be used pursuant to procedure outlined under 40CFR63, Subpart SSSS, and the coating shall not go beyond the threshold of 1.0 lbs VOC/gallon of solids.

 

Adherence to the outlined limits shall be ensured through calculations of weighted averages from each operation on the tenth day of every month. The coating solids weight of VOC per gallon calculation shall continue throughout the year. The average arrived at through adding the averages of the twelve months shall not exceed the limits set under the regulation. The records of weighted average pounds of VOC obtained after calculations are done should be submitted every year under the process outlined under 40CFR63, regulations.

 

For purposes of operations such as steel deck coating and Steel Joist coating, the Engineering Metal Company requires permit approvals for each process point emission units set out under the 15^th condition of the permit and the procedure is outlined under 6NYCRR 201-6 regulations. Since 40CFR63, Subpart MMMM is the regulations applicable for operations regarding bridging and joist coating, emissions of organic HAP from the activities should not exceed 2.6 lb/gal (0.31 kg per liter) of coating solids applied at any one month of the compliance year. Where there are numerous emissions sources in a project or facility, stack heights should be established with regard to other project sources emissions which should include consideration of fugitive and point sources. In an effort to achieve these strategies the metal company should establish air pollution control equipment which is designed to effectively remove most of the pollutant emissions. In a research conducted by Evans & Scott, (2006) air pollution control equipments that are properly operated in the United States were able to eliminate about 99 percent of furans and dioxins, more than 99 percent of hydrogen chloride, about 99 percent of particular toxic matter, about 65 percent of nitrogen oxides, and more than 90 percent of components such as sulfur dioxide.

It should be noted that 40CFR63, section 3920 outline the procedure through which the Engineering Metal Company report of Semi-annual compliance shall be submitted. In addition, the Engineering Metal Company use the procedure set out in 40CFR63, section 3920 for purposes of its record keeping.

 

Testing

The Engineering Metal Company calculate the monthly emission volume- weighted average of VOCs in lb/gal in relation to applied coating solids emanating from operations of decking coating. This is a requirement enshrined under 40CFR 60, NSPS Subpart TT. Source testing does not require other process.

 

Procedures of Calculation

The company must be able to calculate the pollution in terms of material description or name, products’ density in pound per gallon. 8.34 pounds per gallon should be multiplied a specific gravity in case density is not given. In addition the products VOC percentage should also be calculated. Where the content of VOC is provided in terms of pound/gallon of material, then the Engineering Metal Company should divide VOC provided in pound/gallon by the product’s density for purposes of arriving at the VOC percentage in the product. All the Volatile Organic Compounds should be accounted for in the product. Where the total Volatile Organic Compounds content for a particular product is not outlined the Engineering Metal Company should add all the constituencies’ percentage that is Volatile Organic Compounds including HAPs

 

In the process of introducing new production sites, the Engineering Metal Company must undertake the following procedure: there should be an application by the company for a permit authorizing it to construct new production sites as required under the New Source Review. Secondly, the Engineering Metal Company must present to the New York DEC particular information for purpose of review and assessing whether or not to it qualifies to be given the permit. The information required include: description of the project, the design capacity of the project, the schedule of project operation, and location of the project. The information should further present drawings as well as specifications detailing the applicable plant layout and design of the project. The efficacy of emissions management program can be assessed using air quality and emissions monitoring program. To ensure that the collected data are sufficient for the purpose they are intended to achieve it is recommended that a system planning process should be used (Williamson, 2000). This may help to avoid collecting data that is not needed. The process outlines the purpose of data collection and sometimes known as   data quality objective processes. The following essentials should be included in the air quality monitoring program; monitoring parameters, baseline calculation, monitoring type and frequency, monitoring locations, and sampling and analysis methods.

 

In addition a construction schedule of the new projects should be shown in details. The necessary calculations as well as collaborating documentations of potential project emission should also be presented. Finally, the Engineering Metal Company ought to present to the New York DEC the company’s reporting provisions, its recordkeeping, and projected emission monitoring. The Engineering Metal Company must notify the New York DEC of the new construction within thirty days of the project commencement. Actual construction of the new facility by the Engineering Metal Company shall not commence without express approval by the Engineering Metal Company

 

The projects or facilities with considerable levels of pollutant air emissions, as well as a possible impact on the ambient air quality, and must mitigate or avert such impacts by ensuring that; the pollutant concentration emitted by such projects do not reach or surpass the ambient quality standards set by the national legislations or other international standards that are recognized in that country. In addition, the company should ensure that its projects or facilities do not contribute a significant portion of pollutant emissions that contribute to the achievement of set standards of ambient air quality. The estimation of impacts at facility or project level should be estimated through quantitative or even qualitative assessment. This can be done through the use of atmospheric dispersion and assessment of baseline air quality models for purposes of assessing the potential concentrations in the ground level (Wark et al, 2002). The data on local air quality, climate as well as atmosphere should be used for purposes protection against current effects of the source, atmospheric downwash, wakes, terrain features and structures that are nearby and such date can be used for modeling dispersion. It is worth noting that the dispersion model used by the company ought to be compatible with the international standards or should be recognized internationally.

Monitoring Process

During the monitoring process, the selected monitoring parameters should reflect the relevant pollutants with regard to the project processes. For processes of combustion, indicators parameters include inputs qualities for instance the sulfur content found in fuel. The baseline calculation on the other hand is done before development of a project. The calculation of baseline air quality should be done for purposes of assessing key pollutants background levels. This will help in distinguishing between impacts that are project related and the already existing ambient conditions. In monitoring type and frequency the information regarding ambient air quality and emissions attained through the program of monitoring. These should be a representative of the discharged emissions by the facility over a given period.

There should be a frequent sampling of highly variable processed. In addition, monitoring locations establishes the location of air quality based on the scientific methods results for purposes estimating potential consequences other feature such as communities that are likely to be affected as well as the wind directions that are prevailing. The monitoring program under the sampling and analysis method ought to use the international or national approaches of collecting samples as well as analysis. A trained individual should be charged with the responsibility of supervising sampling. In addition, certified or permitted entities should undertake analysis for this purpose. To ensure that the quality of data is adequate for its intended purpose, there should be documentation of quality control and sampling. The monitoring reports should take account of quality control/quality assurance documentation (Thad, 2007).

Conclusion

Indeed, for a company for achieve an effective air emission management program it should ensure that its projects or facilities do not contribute a significant portion of pollutant emissions that contribute to the achievement of set standards of ambient air quality. The estimation of impacts at facility or project level should be estimated through quantitative or even qualitative assessment. This can be done through the use of atmospheric dispersion and assessment of baseline air quality models for purposes of assessing the potential concentrations in the ground level (Evans & Scott, 2006). The data on local air quality, climate as well as atmosphere should be used for purposes protection against current effects of the source, atmospheric downwash, wakes, terrain features and structures that are nearby and such date can be used for modeling dispersion. In addition, the air emission management program should ensure that the pollutant concentration emitted by such projects do not reach or surpass the ambient quality standards set by the national legislations or other international standards that are recognized in that country.

It is also important to establish monitoring practices as well as ambient quality assessment within projects and facilities with potentially substantial emissions from fugitive sources (Williamson, 2000). To ensure the effectiveness of air emission management program the company should use air quality and emissions monitoring program. This program will ensure that the collected data are sufficient for the purpose they are intended to achieve it is recommended that a system planning process should be used.

References

Evans, J., & Scott, W. (2006). “Modeling of Air Pollution Impact. Harvard: Harvard University    Press.

Thad, G. (2007). Health Effects: Air Quality. New York: Lewis publishers.

Wark, K, et al. (2002). Air Pollution its Origin and Control.  California: Addison-Wesley.

Williamson, S. (2000). Fundamentals of Air Pollution Control, Reading. PA: Addison-

 

 

 

 

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Building an Access Control System

 

Name

 

 

Instructor

 

 

Course

 

 

Date

 

 

 

 

The are a number of resources that institutions and companies need to ensure that are accessed by the intended individual only and also that the intended individuals or users  access the resources at a particular level to enable them execute the intended task (Ramachandran, 2002). Such resources may be informational, physical, or personnel. Informational resource may include confidential data or intellectual property. Personnel resource may include contractors and employees, while physical resource may include expensive equipment, a sensitive room or even a particular facility. The purpose of an access control system is protecting the resources of in the system from access by undesired or inappropriate users. Access control system is a mechanism that is concerned with determining activities that are permitted to users who are legitimate. Every attempt to access a resource by a user is also mediated by the system.

A consideration of three abstractions of control should be given priority when setting up an access control system. These three abstractions include: mechanisms, access control policies, as well as models. To begin with, access control policies requirements that are sophisticated and that stipulate access management, the person who may be allowed access to a particular resource and the circumstances under which such a person can be allowed access to a particular resource. Often times, access control policies are application specific and therefore, the application vendor can take into consideration such policies that will satisfy the needs of such an organization. In the case of access to the dormitory the application vendor should consider policies pertaining to the dormitory access based on authority (Jaeger and Tidswell, 2001). There is also the need to have a mechanism through which access control policies can be enforced at a high level. Such mechanisms are such that they can translate the requests by users to access the resource through a structure that is provided by the system. There are a number of structures that a system may utilize such as facial recognition may be undertaken  deny or grant access to a particular facility. A model on the other hand, is a presentation regarding the system security policy and this presentation gives theoretical limitations of the security policy that the system may encounter.

Access control system has three important elements which include: identification, authentication, and authorization. According to Ramachandran, (2002) the first component of an access control system is identification which involves presentation of information by the subject for purposes of identifying the subject at the authentication service. Such identification mechanisms may include access card, username among others. Authentication is the second process of an access control system which involves verification of the identity presented by the subject.  Authentication mechanisms may include: passwords, pin numbers and so forth. Finally, authorization is the last process where the system determines whether or not the subject will be given access. A particular set of criteria that are predefined forms the basis of authorization. Such criteria are enforced through user profile, security labels, or access control list. All the three elements found in an access control system work hand in hand to achieve the purpose of the system.

The access control system of a dormitory is used for purposes of controlling the entry into the facility. For this reason, the system provides at most security of the facility by restricting access to individuals who are unauthorized while at the same time allowing convenient access to authorized individuals. The basic components of the dormitory access control system are access cards, card readers, Electric Lock Hardware, Access Control Field Panels, and Access Control Server Computer.  The purpose of an access card is to be used as an electronic key by the authorized students to gain access through the access control system of the door. It should be noted that every access card has a unique encoding and most of them have an approximate size of credit card. This makes it easy for students to carry their access cards in their purse or wallet (Sandhu and Samarati, 2004).

Card readers on the other hand, are electronic devices that are used for purposes of reading the access cards. Card readers are of two types, that is proximity type and insertion type. The proximity type requires the card swiped near it to read the information while the insert one requires the card to be inserted. Normally, card readers are fixed on the exterior side.

According to Jaeger and Tidswell, (2001) the purpose of an Electric Lock Hardware is to unlock and lock the door electronically. Electric lock hardware is of different types which include among others; electric strikes, and electric locks electromagnetic locks. The use of a particular type of this hardware is determined by the door construction condition. The access control field panels are used for purposes of processing all the activities of the access control system. The number of access control panels is determined by the number of doors using the access control system. Finally, the access control server computer is the central file and database administrator of the system.

An illustration of a typical Cisco physical access control system

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

Jaeger, T., and Tidswell, J. E. (2001) “Practical Safety in Flexible Access Control Models,”           ACM Transactions on Information and System Security, 4 (2), 158-         190.

Ramachandran, J. (2002). Designing Security Architecture Solutions. London: John Wiley &         Sons.

Sandhu R. S., and Samarati, P. (2004). “Access Control: Principles and Practice”, IEEE    Communications, 32 (9), 23-35.

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Running Head: Evidence Based Practice and Applied Nursing Research

 

 

Name

 

 

Institution

 

 

Date

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction

Today, the medical and health care sector is one of the most vibrant disciplines undertaken by man.  The sector has been using huge amounts of money to carry out sophisticated and high quality research annually.  Consequently, there has been a tremendous growth in medical as well as health care literature.  New and more efficient medical procedures, medical devices, as well as medicine are invented on a regular basis (Sackett et al., 2007).  All these efforts are aimed at assisting nurses and other medical practitioners to provide the patients with the best possible treatment and health care.  Aside from using the well-established procedures and traditional practices, new innovative inventions are also being implemented by health care practitioners.  These innovations are founded on concrete research based evidence and best practices.  Such techniques and innovations include evidence-based practice (EBP) and nursing research, these techniques are gaining more recognition because of their potential to provide care for patients and to carry out clinical issues.

Discussion

The concept of evidence based practice within the medical and health care sector emerge in the 1980s.  The emergence of evidence based practice marked a shift of practice among the nurses and other medical practitioners from well-established procedures, and traditional practices, to an emphasis on information and evidence derived from previous studies and research.  According to McKenna et al., (2004) evidence based practice entails the utilization of current best evidence and practices carefully, explicitly, and judiciously for purposes of making suitable decisions about providing the best care for individual patients.  According to LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, (2006) research is a study or a systematic inquiry process conducted for purposes of developing knowledge in a particular field.  Nursing research is therefore, a systematic method that is used for purposes of investigating facts that is crucial for nurses and the nursing profession.  Since nursing career involves clinical practice it is vital for all practices undertaken by nurses to be founded on scientific facts.  The evidence derived from nursing research offers support for a cost effective as well as a quality of nursing intercessions.  Consequently, health care recipients are more likely to benefit through applied nursing research.

Some of the obstacles of applying evidence based practice and nursing research may include: unavailability of research journals and reports by nurses for reference purposes during their practice; some nurses also lack mentors who can be an example for purposes of implementing evidence based practice and nursing research in various tasks practiced by nurses; finally, most nurses continue to apply the knowledge they acquired during their college year, which is outdated.  The only way to overcome these obstacles is identifying them and designing appropriate solutions (Kania-Lachance et al., 2006).  For purposes of assisting nurses and medical practitioners to apply evidence-based practice and nursing research, nurses should be provided with current journal and reports on a particular task in nursing care.  Such reports and journals can be very vital for purposes of providing quality and up to date health care to patients.  In addition, nurses should also develop a culture of applying nursing research and evidence based practice in their day-to-day tasks of nursing.  The administration should also organize activities such as nursing grand rounds, and nursing clubs for purposes of emphasizing the importance of applying evidence based practice and nursing research particularly in nursing care.

According to Melnyk & Fineout-Overholt, (2005)  a single discipline perspective should not be used to solve numerous practice problems.  In light of this, members of the nursing profession have to undertake a number of responsibilities in an effort to effectively apply evidence based practice and nursing research.  To begin with, nurses must be conscious of how a particular decision taken in previous practice may affect the outcome of individual care of a patient.  Secondly, nurses should remain open minded to the ideas of their colleagues.  In addition, they must identify and alleviate their understanding of various methods of developing knowledge and solving problems in different areas.  The nurses should also identify opportunities and develop substantial literature.  The foregoing strategies can be very useful for purposes of providing the necessary evidence in relation to perioperational procedure.

One of the perioperational procedure that evidence based practice and applied nursing research could be of paramount importance is the routine shaving of the surgical site. Routine shaving of the surgical site is a procedure that involves shaving of hair found in the surgical site. Patients must undergo this procedure before any surgical operation. routine shaving of the surgical site can be carried out in three ways, which include: use of creams that dissolve the hair, shaving the hair with a razor, and using a clipper. Several studies have indicated that some of the methods used in routine shaving of the surgical site causes higher levels of infection on the surgical sites compared to others (Alexander, Fawcett and Runcinman, 2006). In light of the forgoing findings, there is no doubt that the need to transform the routine shaving of the surgical site is of atmost importance especially in relation to the method used.

Utilization of evidence based practice and applied nursing research, can go a long way in assisting nurses to make the appropriate decision on the most viable method that they can use to carry out preoperation shaving with lower rate of infection on surgical site. Study shows that the use of a razor to shave surgical site causes higher rate of infection in surgical site (Alexander,et al., 2006). Undertaking research for purposes of understanding the advantages and disadvantages of all methods used in preoperational shaving procedure is therefore, very important. The evidence found in such reports and journals can be used to provide quality health care to surgical patient resulting to better patient outcome.

Most studies indicate that the utilization of shaving cream causes less infections in the surgical site than the use of any other methods(Martin and Marin, 2007). This may be explained by the fact that using a razor to shave might cause cuts that may inturn be easily infected. The use of evidence based practice and applied nursing research can assist nurses to single out the use of depilatory creams as the most effective method of shaving with minimal chances of patient infection.

Certainly, there are numerous benefits that are associated with evidence-based practice and applied nursing research.  Such benefits range from providing quality health care to patients, ensuring that the nursing practice is up to date and relevant, to enabling nurses take full control of their practice.  That notwithstanding, there are a number of challenges and barriers that obstructs implementation of evidence based practice and nursing research in the day to day activities carried out by nurses.  In a study conducted by McKenna et al., (2004) one of the major obstacle is the vast literature on health care that is published in numerous sources making it very difficult for nurses to access such literature for purposes of updating their knowledge.  It is estimated that due to the advancement in technology and the dynamics in the health care sector an average of 8,000 relevant articles in different areas are published every month.  In an effort to stay abreast of new facts, therefore, it is estimated that a nurse requires approximately 20 hours dedicated to reading such literature.  This situation presents a huge barrier to adopting evidence-based practice and applied nursing research.

In an investigation conducted by O’Connor & Pettigrew, (2009) lack of adequate time to implement novel ideas during the working hours, and lack of enough authority to change the procedure of patient care, stands in the way of implementation and adoption of evidence based practice and applied nursing research.  In addition, Sackett et al., (2007) noted that difficulty in appreciating statistical investigation, as well as lack of sufficient resources presented a huge barrier to the adoption of evidence-based practice and applied nursing research.  It is important to note that lack of sufficient time is the most significant obstacle as the nurses cannot be able to carry out substantial research, appreciate it, and interpret the findings of such a report.  Finally, inadequate access to information technology and limited skills on how to use modern technology is also a barrier to adopting evidence based practice and applied nursing research.  Nurses with limited IT skills would find it very hard to search for relevant information.

 

 

Conclusion

Indeed, there are numerous benefits that are associated with evidence-based practice and applied nursing research.  These benefits include providing quality health care to patients, ensuring that the nursing practice is up to date and relevant and enabling nurses to take full control of their practice, among others.  Evidence base practice and nursing research can be applied in perioperative shaving procedure for purposes of providing quality health care and better patient outcome.  Perioperational shaving procedure require high quality data for purposes of informing their clinical decision and better results.  What is more, they require such information for purposes of verifying the effectiveness of changes in practice.  There are three steps through which, evidence based practice and applied nursing research can be implemented and these steps include  nurses formulating a question, finding and evaluating the applicable information, and finally, using such information in their daily practice.

Some of the challenges and barriers that obstruct implementation of evidence based practice and nursing research in the day to day activities carried out by nurses include: the vast literature on health care that is published in numerous sources making it very difficult for nurses to get such literature for purposes of updating their knowledge, lack of adequate time to implement novel ideas during working hours,  lack of enough authority to change the procedure of patient care, inadequate access to information technology as well as  limited skills on how to use modern technology present a barrier to adopting evidence based practice and applied nursing research, and difficulty in appreciating statistical investigation, as well as lack of sufficient resources. It should however be noted that lack of sufficient time is the most significant obstacle as the nurses cannot be able to carry out substantial research, appreciate it, and interpret the findings of such a report.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

Alexander, M. F., Fawcett, J. N., &Runcinman, P. J. (2006). Nursing practice. Hospital     and home: the adult . Washington: Elsevier Health Sciences press.

Kania-Lachance, M., et al. (2006).  Evidence-based practice and the nurse practitioner.             Nursing Practice, 31 (10), 46–54.

Martin, S., & Marin S. Y. (2007). Minor surgical procedures for nurses and allied    healthcare professionals. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

McKenna, H.P, et al. (2004).  Barriers to evidence-based practice in primary care.  J        Adv Nurse, 45 (2), 178–189.

Melnyk, B., & Fineout-Overholt, E. (2005).  Evidence-based practice in nursing and          health care.  Philadelphia: LippincottWilliams & Wilkins.

LoBiondo-Wood, G., & Haber, J. (2006).  Nursing Research: methods and critical appraisal for evidence-based practice.  St. Louis: Elsevier.

O’Connor, S., & Pettigrew, C. (2009).  The barriers perceived to prevent the successful   implementation of evidence-based practice.  Nurse Practice, 44(6), 1018–1035.

Sackett, D., et al. (2007) Evidence-based medicine: how to practice and teach EBM.         Edinburgh, UK: Churchill Livingstone.

 

 

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Outline

• Introduction
• Comparison
• Contrast
• Author’s Background
• Conclusion

 

Short Stories of Kate Chopin

Introduction

Both “The Storm” and “The Story of an Hour” were written by Kate Chopin. In both stories, the author depicts suppressed emotions and passions of the women during that period. The two wives in “The Storm” and “The Story of an Hour” have desires that are hidden and they are both unable to act upon them or even openly express them due to the cultural beliefs as well as the society in which they lived in at the time. Unlike today, women in the two stories were not given opportunity in their lifetime (Reuben 33). The dominant role was therefore taken by men in marriages and women were left with the role of submissive housewives. Chopin in both stories takes the reader through the experience of each woman both at a time when their emotions were suppressed as well as when they were able to express their inner emotions, feel uninhibited and alive. The author conveys discontent of both women in the two stories and relates that discontent to the time period in which both women lived. Even though there are some differences between the women found in the two stories of Kate, both have hidden desires that they are unable openly express because of  the cultural beliefs as well as the society in which they lived in at the time.

Comparison

Both women from “The Story of an Hour and”The Storm” were married and the conditions of their marriage life were the same, in that they were both dissatisfied in their marriage. Mrs. Mallard was married to Brently Mallard and Calixta to Bobinot. In the text of both stories, both Mrs. Mallard and Calixta were evidently not satisfied with their marriages. In the story “The Story of an Hour” Mrs. Mallard for renitence never had affection for Mr. Brently Mallard, her husband (Reuben 36). This was evident after the death of her husband where she was hast to realize that she was free from him and could continue living her life the way she wanted without having to answer to anyone.

Even though Brently Mallard had a heart problem, the story mentions that she had all the intention to live a long life and that life would be hers alone. Like Brently Mallard, the matrimonial life of Calixta was not pleasing and she did not have a fondness for Mr. Bobinot her husband. At one time when her husband and son were in the store, a powerful cyclone held them up and they had to wait until the cyclone passed away. Calixta did not seem worried about the safety of her son and husband who were held up by the storm. Surprising, during this time when her husband and son were held at the store by the storm, Calixta was comfortably wrapped in the arms of her old lover Alcee.  Calixta enjoyed all the passion she and her older lover used to share (Tonette (b) 97). Not until the powerful cyclone has passed, did Mrs. Calixta and her old time lover Alcee decided to call it a day as Mr. Bobinot and the son arrived home. From both stories therefore, it is clear that both women Calixta and Mrs. Mallard were not pleased with marriage life and much less with their husbands.

In addition, both Calixta and Mrs. Mallard from “The Storm” and “The Story of an Hour” have very fascinating traits. In the case of Mrs. Mallard, when she was told the new of her husband death by Richard her husband’s friend and her sister, she mourned her husband for a while and she realized that she had got her freedom from the husband’s untimely demise. Nonetheless, her freedom did not last for long, and as coming down the stairs, she saw her husband at the entrance of the house. Mrs. Mallard die of heart attack on realization that the husband Mr. Brently Mallard was still alive. Calixta, on the other hand, stays alone in the house not worried about her husband Mr. Bobinot and her son despite the fact that they are both held up at the store by powerful storm. Calixta instead of being worried about her family, she is busy rekindling an affair with her long time lover and continues until the storm stops. Indeed, the two women in the two stories share some similarity; nonetheless, there are a number of differences exhibited by these women, which make them unique in their respective situations.

Contrast

One of the differences that can be pointed out between the two women is from “The Storm” and “The Story of an Hour” is the different reasons that caused matrimonial dissatisfaction in the women. In “The Storm”   for instance, there is enough evidence to indicate that Calixta was repressed sexually and that her husband, Mr. Bobinot was a great lover as Calixta had expected (Tonette (a) 49). The validity of the above statement may be confirmed by the fact that Mr. Bobinot has to buy Shrimp, which is used for sexual enhancement indicating that he was aware of his shortcoming particularly in bed. Additionally purchasing of Shrimp by Mr. Bobinot may also indicate that he was alive of the fact that their marriage falling apart and therefore he hoped to make amends wherever he could (Seyersted 43).

Nonetheless, not all that effort by Mr. Bobinot deterred his wife Calixta to give in to an affair with her long time lover Alcee as she considered him to be a more loving and passion man than her husband Mr. Bobinot. The marriage between Brently Mallard and Mrs. Mallard, on the other hand, in “A Story of an Hour” the situation was not the same as in the case of Calixta. Mrs. Mallard, though she did not mourn the demise of her husband, she was able to accept the situation as it was something that is very uncommon among other women. To her, the death of her husband was a great relive to her life and she realized that she would be free to live the rest of her life without a husband. It is clear that she did not love her husband since she thought he had dies, nonetheless, she did not have a lover like Calixta in the short story “The Storm”(Tonette (a) 54).

Author’s Background.

Both Mrs. Mallard and Calixta from “A Story of an Hour” and”The Storm”   are interesting characters developed in the two stories. They give the reader a perfect reflection of the life led by the author, Kate Chopin. While Calixta experience the reunion of her long time lover with whom she gets physically involved with thereby breaking her matrimonial commitment, Mrs. Mallard does not do such a thin when she got the news of her husband demise but rather she was quick to realize that there was a brighter side of her husband death and that was freedom (Tonette (b) 102). Ironically, Mrs. Mallard received the news of her husband’s death very calmly even though she had heart problems but the realization of the fact that her husband was alive led to her death.

The two short stories have can be related to the personal life of the other in the following context: Kate Chopin was born in 1850 in St. Louis, Missouri to Thomas O’Flaherty and Eliza. At an early age of five, her father passed away in a train crash (Toth 187).  After the demise of her father, Kate lived at her home for two years with her great grandmother, her grandmother, and her mother all of whom were widows. Victoria Verdon her great grandmother was responsible for her education and she taught her music, French, and other things that were necessary at the time. It is therefore clear that Kate grew up among single independent women who were intelligent and free from any kind of male dominance (Toth 188).

Those women surrounding Kate Chopin were ground breaking, for instance her mother was the first woman to obtain a legal separation from Kate’s father in St. Louis. Her mother had a shipping business and at the same time, she had five children to rise. It is worth noting that for sixteen years Kate never saw a married couple living in their home even though she had uncles, brothers, borders, and cousins living there. At the age of twenty, Kate was married to Oscar Chopin and they were blessed with seven children. Oscar died twelve years later living Kate as a widow to raise their children alone and to run the business of her husband.  She later moved back to live with her mother Eliza after selling her husband’s plantation and general shop. Unfortunately, her mother died a year later and this left Kate without anyone to support her in her children.  She ventured into writing and became very successful. Some of her work include: The Awakening, At Fault, Bayou Folk, A Night in Acadia, “A Story of an Hour”, and “The Storm”   to mention but a few.

Conclusion

One can rightly conclude that much of the Kate Chopin’s work especially the content of “A Story of an Hour” and “The Storm”   has some aspects that relate to the author’s personal life experience as a single and independent woman. It is evident from the two stories the desires of women were hidden and they were unable to act upon them or even openly express them due to the cultural beliefs as well as the society in which they lived in at the time. The role of a woman at that time was to be a submissive housewife and dominated by a man in the marriage. Tired of being dominated the women wanted freedom to live their lives without male interference.

 

 

 

 

Works Cited

Tonette, Bond (a). “Kate Chopin,” American Women Writers: Bibliographical Essays.       Ed.Maurice Duke, Jackson R. Bryer, and M. Thomas Inge. Westport: Greenwood Press,           1983, pp. 47-69.

Tonette, Bond (b). “Kate Chopin,” Dictionary of Literary Biography. American Short Story           Writers 1880-1910, volume 78. Ed. Bobby Ellen Kimbel. Ann Arbor: Edward Brothers,            1989, pp. 90-109.

Reuben, Paul. “Chapter 6: American Naturalism: Kate Chopin (1851 – 1904)” PAL:           Perspective on American Literature – A Research and Reference Guide. Retrieved      November 6, 2012 at http://www.csustan.edu/english/reuben/pal/chap6/chopin.html

Toth, Emily. “Kate Chopin,” Oxford Companion to Women’s Writing in the U.S. Ed. Cathy N.      Davidson, Linda Wagner-Martin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 187-188

Seyersted, Peter.  Complete Works of Kate Chopin.  Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University       Press, 1969.

 

 

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Case Study: Nairobi

 

 

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Introduction

According to Odudho (2002: 43), the issue of urbanization in Kenya began centuries ago particularly along the coastal area where towns developed as trading centers far back in the 9^th century.  Nonetheless, most of the urban centers in Kenya can trace their roots to the colonial period during which such centers were used by the imperial authorities as administrative centers. In a study conducted by the Malombe (2004: 26), there was an increase in the percentage of Kenyans living in urban centers.  The research indicates that in 1979 there was an increase in the urban population to 15.1% down from 5.1% in 1948. There was further increase in 1989 from 18.0% to 34.8 % in 2000. Currently, the number of urban centers in Kenya   is about 194. Notably, Nairobi the capital city of Kenya hosts about 45% of the overall urban population of Kenya.

Historical background of Nairobi.

The development of Nairobi city can trace way back to the construction of Kenya Uganda Railway. The railways headquarters was moved to Nairobi from Mombasa and as a result, Nairobi gradually developed as a business as well as a commercial hub administered by British colonial administration. By the 1900, the city of Nairobi had grown tremendously with separate residential areas for Indians who were generally laborers at railway construction, and Europeans who were the colonial master. Surprising, Nairobi by this time did not have any particular African settlement area. Later in the same year Nairobi under took the function of a capital city of Kenya and the boundaries of the capital were demarcated.  It was officially declared as a capital of Kenya in 1907. The capital of Kenya became a city in 1950 and there has been a rapid increase in the population density henceforth.

            There were clear indications of segregation right from the earliest times between the Africans, Asians, and Europeans residential areas and the Central Business District (CBD). The road network and other internal structures were developed in Nairobi by 1909. Following the rapid growth of infrastructure as well as population, there was an extension of Nairobi’s boundaries to cover 77square kilometers (30 square miles) in 1927. These boundaries remained unchanged until 1963 where the capital was further extended to cover an area of about 686 square kilometers (266 square miles). The functions of the Nairobi city have expanded and developed tremendously from the initial growth in that to date, the city has attained a great deal of dominance  in  economic, cultural, social, and political life not only of the Kenyan people but also the enter region of East Africa.

Informal settlements in Nairobi

Source: (Government of Kenya, 2001)

A study conducted by Odudho and Aduwo, (2002: 58) indicate that there has been a significant change in the population of Nairobi. In their research, they suggest that the immigration from the central province of Kenya, which borders the city, has been the primary source of growth of Nairobi. Other sources of immigration have been western, Eastern, and Nyanza provinces of the country (Odudho and Aduwo, 2002: 58).  Apart from the massive migration from the aforementioned areas of the country to the city, natural growth and boundary changes factors have also contributed to population growth in the city.

There are several problems that have emerged in Nairobi city in the past two decades. These problems include but not limited to poor governance, discrimination and victimization of particular ethin groups, poor environmental condition, increase in diseases and emergence of slums. Nairobi city is governed by the Nairobi City Council (NCC) which falls under the ministry of local government in the central government. Nairobi City Council (NCC) consists of members who are elected at the civic level; it also has executive staff charged with the responsibility of day to day running of the council. The operation of the Nairobi City Council (NCC) is governed by The Local Government Act Cap (265) of Kenyan laws. A fully constituted council has 73 councilors, 55 of whom are elected from their respective civic areas while the remaining 18 councilors are nominated.

The biggest problem that has persistantly affected  Nairobi for the last two decades  is pooer governance and corruption within the Nairobi City Council (NCC). The individual charged with the responsibility of collecting revenue on behalf of the council across the city are very corrupt. Often times, such officers do not remit the full amount of rates collected  within the city and therefore service delivery by the city council of Nairobi becomes almost impossible. It does not come as a surprise that in a survey conducted by transparency international, Nairobi City Council (NCC) emerged as the fifth most corrupt sector among public institutions (Syagga &  Malombe, 1995). Consequently, a huge number of individuals living in informal settlements around Nairobi have continued to suffer due to the poor performance and service delivery of Nairobi City Council (NCC). The only way to address and improve the living conditions of slum dwellers in Nairobi city is by improving the governance of the Nairobi City Council (NCC).

            For the last twenty years, environmental conditions have been deteriorating in the city of Nairobi. The poor environmental conditions have contributed to a number of ailments that are common within the city especially in the slum area. Some of most common diseases in the city include waterborne diseases like cholera and typhoid, malaria, HIV/AIDS, flue, TB, and measles to mention but a few. Poor environmental conditions in Nairobi city for the last two decades include: lack of clean water within some parts of the city, poor drainage systems, crowding in some areas (Situma, 1992). The most serious environmental problem in some parts of the city is that there are no sanitation facilities, a factor that has been cited as the most notaries in causing health related predicaments

Another issue that has persistentl affected Nairobi for the last twenty years is the growth of  informal settlement and slums. Such informal settlements and slums are widely situated across Nairobi. These areas accommodate a very huge number of individuals in the city especially the low-income people (Syagga &  Malombe, 1995).  Access to essential services in this area is almost impossible. Social amenities are very scarce because the population density is very high. Most parents who live in these informal settlements and slums cannot afford to give their children a decent education. Consequently, these children cannot be able to get a decent job to improve their standard of living; they end up joining criminal gangs hence the high crime rate in Nairobi. Others end up being street dwellers who beg for handouts from shoppers at shopping moles across the city.

Discrimination and Victimization based on the ethnicity of an individual has persisted in Nairobi for the last twenty years.  Most areas in Nairobi are named according to the community that is more dominant in the area. What’s more, most tenants around the city prefer to rent a house that is owed by a person from their own ethnic group. Settlements that are based on ethnic groups are therefore very common within Nairobi and it is influenced by the initial settlers of a particular area. Most residential areas have no security of tenure and the landlords often evict tenants with short or absolutely no notice. It goes without saying that once a tenant has failure to pay his or her rent eviction is eminent (Situma, 1992).

The rate of crime in Nairobi has been on the rise for the last twenty years. According to Odudho and Aduwo, (2002: 34) the increase in the crime rate has greatly been influence by the emergence of informal settlement around the city, which act as a safe haven for criminal and gangs. In most of these informal settlements, income levels of the residents are very low and poverty is very rampant. Concequently, most parents dweling in these slums may not be able to educate their children and some of them drop out of school. It follows that such young men and women cannot be able to secure good jobs to earn a decent living and the only alternative is to engage in criminal activities.

Study shows that there is a low incidence of housing and population densities in both the industrial areas as well as the Central Business District (CBD). There are about five residential areas in Nairobi with different levels of social mix as well as population density. These areas include: Kibera slum to the west and Mathare valley located east of Nairobi city forms the largest unplanned urban settlements in Nairobi. These areas have a staggering population density of up to 2,500 individual per single hectare by the year 2002. These areas and other informal urban settlements in Nairobi are characterized by unrestrained, unplanned settlements which are mainly formed by people with low income. Most of these settlements are located close to the Central Business District (CBD). Service provision in these areas is very poor and accommodation problems are very high.

Important needs by slum dwellers in Nairobi

Source: Adopted  from Malombe (2004), pg. 11

Another area with high population is Eastlands. It is located east of the Central Business District (CBD) and densely populated as well as low income. By the year 2002, the area had 100_600 individuals per hectare. Langata and Karen located southeast and south of Nairobi city respectively, comprises of low-density residential areas and high-income earners.  Generally, the houses in these areas are large with paddocks and gardens. These areas also accommodate several mid income estates mainly occupied by civil servants.

Nairobi south, parklands, and Eastleigh are areas occupied by medium income individual and by the year 2002, the population density was 60- 80 individuals per hectare. Most of the people in these areas own the houses that they reside. The fifth and last residential area is upper Nairobi. This area is located north and west of the Central Business District (CBD). The area is occupied by   individuals with high income and it has very low population density (4-45 individuals per hectare). The area comprises of residential areas such as Kilimani, Muthaiga, Kileleshwa, Bernard, and Lavington to mention but a few.

Conclusion

Indeed the population density of Nairobi city has increases rapidly in the last two decades. The greatest contributor to this population increase has been immigration particularly from the central province of Kenya which borders the city has been the primary source of growth of Nairobi. Other sources of immigration have been western, Eastern, and Nyanza provinces of the country.  Natural growth and boundary changes are other factors have also contributed to population growth in the Nairobi. In the last twenty years, Nairobi city has encountered several problems ranging from poor governance of the city by the Nairobi City Council, emerging unplanned urban settlements, ailments, poverty, and increase in the rate of crime.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

Government of Kenya (2001) Economic Survey Government Printers, Nairobi

Obudho, RA (2002) “The Role of Metropolitan Nairobi in Spatial Planning in Kenya; Towards a Planning Alternative” AfricanUrban Quarterly Vol 7 No 1 & 2, February 2002.

Obudho, R., and Aduwo (2002) “The Nature of the Urbanisation Process and Urbanism in the     City of Nairobi, Kenya African Urban Quarterly Vol7 No 1 & 2, February 2002.

Malombe, JM (2004) “The Role of Dandora Site and Service Project in Providing Housing the      Nairobi Residents” AfricanUrban Quarterly, Volume 7, Numbers 1&2 (pp196-202)

Situma, F. (1992). “The Environmental Problems in the City of Nairobi” African Urban     Quarterly, Volume 3,  Number 4 & 5 pp (220-230)

 

Syagga, M ., &  Malombe, J. (1995) Development of Informal Housing in Kenya Case Studies of   Nairobi city. Nairobi: University of Nairobi.

 

 

 

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How ESL Arab learners use the 3^rd person singular-S in speech and writing

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Abstract

Second language acquisition is both systematic and variable as learners have to undergo several developmental stages before they acquire competence in the language. This study will investigate the acquisition of English as a second language (ESL) by Arab learners and how they use it in speech and writing. It is clearly known that second language (L2) learners show changeability in the second language (L2) production of verbal inflectional morphology by either making unsuitable substitution or omitting inflections in speech and writing. According to Prevost and White (2000), the Missing Surface Inflection Hypothesis proposes that second language learners have skill of functional features and categories underlying agreement and tense although sometimes they do not produce the subsequent obvious forms. It has been noted that Arabic learners acquire mastery of the third person singular-S in the later stages. The objective of the study is to investigate how ESL Arab learners use the Third Person Singular-S in speech and writing. The study hypothesis is that there is a relationship between high levels of learning and language perfection (use of the third person singular-S) by ESL Arab learners. In order to examine and evaluate the nature of ESL Arab learners’ inter-language (IL) grammar and how the learners use third person singular-S in speech and writing, four subjects will be interviewed. The units of analysis will be four ESL Arab learners in the US. The study will apply the quantitative research methods. Data will be analyzed using the narrative or descriptive analysis to discuss the research findings.

Introduction

In English language, there are three parties involved, the first person, the second person and the third person. In this case, the major concern is on the third person. The use of third person singular-S in English language is governed by some grammatical rules. These rules are used in forming the conjunction of a verb. In many cases, an ‘-s’ is simply added to the end of a verb to create the third person singular. For instance ride- rides, drink- drinks, write- writes. In third person singular, if a verb ends with –ch, -sh, or –x, -es is simply added to the end of the verb. If the verb ends with a consonant –y, the y is changed to i and –es added to the end of the verb. Some verbs like go, do, be and have are irregular and one has to omit them to memory. Go- goes, do- does, be- is and have- has. In some cases, however, there is a lot of misuse of the third person singular- S. this means that the ‘s’ is either omitted or used where it is not supposed to be used. This is brought about by being unaware of the tense, aspect or person of the subject.

The problem that arises in learning English as a second language for the Arabs has to do with the fact that Second language acquisition is highly systematic and highly variable (Myles, 2004). The acquisition of second language is highly systematic because of the progression of development that is the route taken by a second learner in developing aptitude in the second language. This implies that learning English is not just a one time process, but follows a number of developmental steps and stages for the learner to develop proficiency in the language. This process according to Myles (2004) cannot be affected in any way by the learner’s first language (L1), as well as the context under which learning is undertaken. The rate of learning and the result of the learning process are highly dependent upon individual learners, which vary from one individual to another.

The process of second language acquisition is focused on the route of development of second language for L2 learners as it helps both teachers and learners to obtain important perspectives on the route that learners take in their development and understanding of the second language. The speed at which people develop proficiency in language differs from one individual to the other. It has been, however, noted that the quicker the learner develops proficiency, the better it is for both the teacher and the learner, and the more both will comprehend what makes individuals learn languages faster. In learning the importance of second language acquisition, it is also important to discuss the significance of errors as explained by Myles (2004). Errors in learning a second language may be made in both speech and writing, which creates grammatical errors as is the case when the third person singular-S is either omitted or used incorrectly. The learning that takes place outside the classroom, the U-shape of learning is important in understanding certain aspects in the learning process. This process of learning the appropriate aspects in language. This form of learning also applies to first language learners. Learning acquisition therefore, is a natural process of the individual learner, and cannot be forced. Learners develop the required skills and knowledge by experimenting through making and correcting mistakes over and over again, till the required mastery is achieved. This is only possible if teachers understand and appreciate the fact that language acquisition is highly systematic and variable.

Most Arabs have a problem with the use of third person singular-S in speech and in writing. English as a language is taught as a second language for almost 8 years in schools and the university levels in Yemen. However, observations have shown that most ESL Arab learners have difficulty in acquiring and producing proper grammatical forms in speaking, as well as writing, particularly the third person singular- S. functional categories are important in English as they play a role in a sentence and learning these is vital to the acquisition of L2. According to White (2003), the acquisition of the functional grammatical categories has been a major issue of concern for first language (L1) and L2 acquisition research within the framework of generative grammar. Over the years, generative study and research have examined the important question of whether the acquisition of L2 is similar to the acquisition of L1 by determining the availability of Universal grammar (UG) to the second language learner. Universal grammar refers to the theory of an innate language that consists of invariant principles for all languages and a number of factors that account for language variation. Similarly, acquisition of language is assumed to engage setting a small number of parameters and the concern in second language acquisition is whether accessibility of the Universal language is possible for L2 learners in the same way as it is for first language learners. There have been a number of assumptions as to the second language learners’ access to universal language and the role of the first language in the processof second language acquisition, which have been the central points of investigation. The main aim of this study, therefore, is to determine and be able to explain how the ESL Arab learners use the first person singular-S in speech and writing.

This study seeks to test the theory of the systematicity of Second Language Acquisition. It seeks to establish whether Second Language Acquisition is systematic and variable; that is, whether it follows a predetermined pattern that is arranged in terms of development stages which all individuals naturally go through, and that the agility of learners’ in maneuvering through the different stages is highly dependent upon the individual learner. In doing this, the study will apply quantitative method of study to examine the progress of four Arabic students who are all learners of English as a Second Language in the United States of America.

The aim of the study is to find out where and how often the participants would miss the third person –s more; whether it would happen more in writing or in the oral presentation.  Because gaining mastery of the third person –s is one of the developmental stages in Second Language Acquisition, this study will establish the competence of the different levels of learners with regard to their usage of the third person –s and possibly elucidate on the rate of language acquisition and whether indeed there are stages that learners go through before gaining mastery of the second language they are studying. It will also establish whether mastery of the language is gained first orally then through writing or vice versa.

Literature Review

Most of research in the study of language research has focused on the grammatical properties of the L2 learners. The relevance and applicability of UG to L2 acquisition has been demonstrated by many studies (Hawkins, 2001). Most of the researchers of L2 have concentrated on the question of whether L2 learners have access to similar innate principles of UG. In the recent years, the question of whether the Universal Language is available in the acquisition of the second language has been viewed from the perspective of the acquisition studies since the 1990s (Mitchell and Myles, 2004). Much recent work concerned with UG of second language has concentrated on determining whether functional categories are present in L2 learners. According to findings of previous studies, learners either have no access, partial access or full access to the innate principles of the Universal Grammar.

The theory of the Universal Grammar (UG) states that human languages operate within certain constraints and is learnable by all individuals. Learners need to be adjusted to the central elements of a certain language in three ways. First they should learn how the new language fits into the universal principles and rules of language use that are naturally programmed into their mind. Secondly, learners should learn how the new language varies within the possible determined limits in the essential elements by establishing particular values for those parameters. Thirdly, learners should learn the vocabulary of the language been studied and how each word fits into the whole sentence structure in order to make sense and convey the intended meaning (cook, 1996). These principles are the general requirements on the form of grammar for the specific language. Language depends on a rigid structure of sentence formation. This therefore means that learners should internalize the rules and structures in order to make sense of it, as well as, being able to gain proficiency that is required. According to Cook (1996), L2 learners should internalize sufficient speech and vocabulary in order insatiate the principles of the learner’s knowledge of language in the appropriate form for that language. The learner must also gain adequate evidence to be able to tell the parameters required for a particular language. Dunlap (2006) states that both first and second language learners go through a process of language acquisition to learn a language. The process of learning, however, involves a number of developmental stages that must be followed in learning the key aspects of a language. That is, in order to gain mastery and proficiency of a particular language, there are various steps involved. According to Dunlap (2006), learners of English as a second language must learn both the language and how to use it at the same time. The developmental stages of L2 acquisition have names, but these names differ from one place to another. For example in California, the stages are marked as Beginning, Early Intermediate, Intermediate, Early Advanced and Advanced. I other places, the stages of acquisition are marked as the Random Errors, Emergent, systematic and stabilization stages. No matter the names of the acquisition stages, the final results are the same. It should however be considered that there are different learner types. Freeman and Freeman (2007) states that there are three basic learner types: one of these is those that are new to English with adequate schooling. The second type according to Freeman and freeman (2007) is those that are new to English with limited formal schooling, while the third and last type is those that are long term ESL learners. The acquisition processes for these groups of learners may be different.

According to Dunlap (2006), learners try to relate new sounds with their meanings in the Beginning stage. This stage is called the silent stage as learners listen and no much talking goes on at this stage. Learners try to get the basic idea of the phrase without understanding all words used in the phrase. This goes on until a measure of mastery is achieved. In the Early Intermediate stage, learners begin to use some words in conversation or in constructing sentences. In the third level, the Intermediate stage, learners consolidate what they have learnt and improve on their sentence structure. At this stage, learners expand their vocabulary and continually learn and memorize new words and how to use them in both speech and writing (Dunlap, 2006). During the last stages Early Advanced and Advanced stages, learners exhibit a bit of mastery of the English language. In these stages, learners are able to completely communicate and exchange ideas using English. Dunlap (2006) insists that at these stages, additional support is needed to help the learners acquire competence and proficiency in English, which is used for content construction. Learners should be guided to ensure that their competence in the English language covers the central areas of school work and that learners will be able to communicate fluently. In addition, learners should be guided in order to be able to link concepts and ideas, as well as, being able to structure an argument in academic works (Hudelson et al. 2003). There are five hypotheses in second language acquisition. The learning or acquisition hypothesis states that individuals have two different and independent means of developing the ability in second language that is through acquiring and learning. The natural order hypothesis holds that people acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order. The monitor hypothesis proposes that there are two processes for developing ability in a second language (acquisition and learning). The input hypothesis describes how individuals are able to acquire by understanding the inputs available. On the other hand, the affective filter hypothesis is concerned with the role of affective variables in learning a second language (Geçkin & Haznedar, 2008).

Most of previous studies done focus greatly on L2 acquisition as a whole. It is however important to look at the specific issues of concern that are related with acquisition of English as a second language by Arab learners. Most learners experience difficulties in using the third person singular- S, both in speech and in writing. This is exhibited in their omission or wrong use of the singular- S in constructing sentences or phrases. It is therefore important to look at this issue.

Third person singular –s, a later development of English

The third person singular –s is one of the later developmental stages of English as a Second Language Acquisition (Gabryś, 2008). The third person indicative –s is generally viewed as an introductory concept for L2 learners of English. The concept is both comprehendible and teachable. However, its significance is only a later development in English and this could mean serious difficulties in its use especially for ESL students or learners. It is evident to ESL teachers that some learners apply this according to Bittner (2003), omission of the morpheme –s continues to occur even in the production of advanced learners or students. Problems with the morpheme –s might be expected in speech, as well as, in writing using English language. In fact, most of the teachers are surprised when learners fail to use or use – s incorrectly, even after careful editing. More surprising is the fact that some students omit –s while reading something that has been written. The difference between spoken and written language has been identified by some scholars. Dunlap (2006) notes that spoken language is acquired through active listening to grasp the nuances of the language being learned. Written language on the other hand is language codified in a system of symbols, letters, words and characters to represent “linguistic-conceptual objects” (Perfetti & Dunlap, 2008).

According to Gabryś (2008), most ESL teachers, researchers and students seem to agree that the rules and principles underlying the use of third person singular –s is simple, and that the form of using it is available in the language environment. This, however, is never the case for all individuals as the mistakes made while using the third person singular –s are evident and this calls for attention as English requires fluency both in speech and writing (Geçkin & Haznedar, 2008). According to Bittner (2003), the acquisition of third person singular –s is not as easy as most people think or believe. Syntactic and semantic complexity in the context of the morpheme –s, as well as, phonology constraints can hinder complete or full acquisition for many ESL learners. According to Bittner (2003), the influence of sonority hierarchy can cause variability in the use of the third person singular –s.

Linguistic Assumptions

Arabic and English differ in their unmarked order of word. For instance in most cases, while English takes the form of subject verb object (SVO), Arabic mainly takes verb subject object (VSO). Morphology in both language s is different. This could be the reason behind the difficulties experienced by ESL Arab learners (Benmamoun, 2000).

Purpose of the study

There are difficulties experienced in learning English as a second language. It becomes a challenge for learners, and this cannot be ignored. The study of how ESL Arab learners use third person singular-S is very important as it will establish other crucial aspects in acquisition of ESL. Learning English may not be easy as it may sound. Arabic students that learn English as a second language experience difficulties related to grammatical errors. An example of these errors committed by ESL Arab learners is misuse of the third person singular-S. That is most of the learners either omit or use the ‘-s’ inappropriately. As fluency is important in English (Hudelson, et al. (2003) the study focuses on establishing use of such aspects by learners.

The use of written and oral production is also important in enhancing uptake of second language by learners (Christian, 2011). Activities involving students, guided by instructions from the teacher, should be encouraged in Second Language Acquisition especially those that will encourage learners to use the language skills they have learnt in challenging and thought provoking exercises such as essay writing, public speaking and writing various types of compositions. Christian (2011) also says that situations that encourage regular use of the language being taught should be created, for example by having a strict policy to use that one language, the language being learnt, as both an instruction as well as a general communication tool. The study is therefore important especially for other learners learning English as a second language, in understanding the key aspects underlying the study.

 

Research questions

The main research question of this study is: How Do Arabic Learners of English as a Second Language use the Third Person Singular –s? The study hypothesis is that there is a relationship between high levels of learning and language perfection (use of the third person singular-S) by ESL Arab learners The study of how Arabic students in the US use the third person singular-S should reflect the level of competence an individual being studied has. In order to answer this question, the study seeks to establish the developmental stages of four different ESL Arab students in the United States. This will be determined by specifically looking at the time the students or persons have spent in the United States, as well as, the level of education that they have acquired. In addition, interview schedule will be used in order by the interviewer and research findings for the four individuals will be analyzed through quantitative methods. This will aid in achieving the objectives of the study.

Research Methodology and Design

The study will employ quantitative method of research in order to achieve the objectives of the study as well as to test the hypotheses. This study will use unstructured interview, where respondents will be asked to write on various topic as will be determined by the interviewer. An oral interview will also be performed on the interviewees. These two tests will help in determining the use of the third person singular- S, which is the main objective of the study. These methods are appropriate as the number of cases is very small and does not require questionnaires. In addition, the subject of matter will only be achieved by use of these methods. Coding will be used in classification of data. The units of analysis will be four ESL Arab students in the United States of America, as they will help in determining the difficulties that Arabs experience in acquisition of ESL. The research design that will be used is case study on four ESL Arab students in the United States. The data will be analyzed using both descriptive and statistical techniques. The researcher will use both frequency distribution table and percentages.

Significance of the study

Vocabulary acquisition between written and spoken English affect the rate of acquisition, hence the interest by SLA researchers in this area (Corson, 1995). As the learning and understanding of grammar is fundamental to L2 acquisition, and due to the growing demands for the use of the English language in most fields such as education, communication, and many other fields, it is significant that the ESL Arab learners be competent in the language, both in speech and writing. The findings of the study could shed more light on learners’ L2 acquisition process and contribute to the gap in the body of the L2 acquisition literature, particularly in the Arabic context. This may also help students learn how to model and build relationships between concepts in the language before they are taught to express these ideas in symbolic and diagrammatic forms through written language. Learning to read and write can help ESL learners to better conceptualize ideas in English, but they have to first learn to think in the language (Corson, 1995).

 

References

Myles, F. 2004. Second Language Acquisition: Its Significance for Learning and Teaching Issues. Subject Centre for Langiages, Linguistics and Area studies Good Practice Guide. Retrieved 17 April 2012, from http://llas.ac.uk/resource/gpg/421

Dunlap, C. Z. 2006. Helping English Language Learners Succeed. Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education Publishing.

Christian, D. 2011. Dual Language Education. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language teaching and Learning (Vol 2) (pp. 3-20). New York: Routledge.

Cook, V. 1996. Universal Grammar in Second Language Acquisition. In P. Jordans and J. Lalleman (Eds.), Investigating Second Language Acquisition (pp. 167-186). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter and Co.

Corson, D. (1995). Using English Words. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Prévost, P. (2003). Truncation and missing surface inflection in initial L2 German. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 25, 65–97.

Perfetti,C. A. & Dunlap, S. (2008). Learning to Read: General Principles and writing Systems Variations. In K. Koda and A. M. Zehler (Eds.), Learning to Read Across Languages:

Hudelson, S., Wolfe, P. and Poynor, L. (2003). Teaching Bilingual and ESL Children and Adolescents. In J. Flood et al. (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teaching the English Language Arts (pp. 421-432). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Freeman, Y. and Freeman, D. 2007. Four Keys for School Success for Elementary Learners. In J. Cummins and C. Davidson (Eds.), International handbook of English Language Teaching – Part One (pp. 349-364). New York: Springer.

White, L. (2003). Universal Grammar and Second Language Acquisition: From Initial to Steady State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mitchell, R. & Myles, F. (2004). Second Language Learning theories, 2nded. New York: Oxford University press.

Benmamoun, E. (2000). The feature structure of functional categories: a comparative study of Arabic dialects. New York/Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Geçkin, V., & Haznedar, B. (2008). The morphology/syntax interface in child L2 acquisition: Evidence from verbal morphology. Current Trends in Child Second Language Acquisition: A Generative Perspective, B.

Bittner, D. (2003). Development of verb inflection in first language acquisition: A cross-linguistic perspective. Berlin [u.a.: Mouton de Gruyter.

Gabryś, D. (2008). Morphosyntactic issues in second language acquisition. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.

 

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Hip hop and how Eminem made it as a successful Rapper

Rap has been argued as the most dominant force in popular culture (Edward 111). In fact, most teenagers in America rate it as their favorite music genre. It is evident that rap music is widely spread as almost all countries have some form of rap music. The biggest star in this is Eminem, a name common in almost all regions of the world. Throughout his music career, the rapper has established significant hope in the music industry. The rapper has worn big awards in music, which have earned him so many honors. The rapper’s talent and skill make the rapper gain considerable admiration from his fans. This paper discusses hip hop and ho Eminem became a successful rapper. The paper focuses on three main aspects including the fact that the rapper uses past failed and successful white artists’ efforts at creating hip hop. In addition, Eminem refers to himself as the other rapper, not a white or black rapper, but a rapper who is based on his natural talent. Eminem uses his position as a white male in order to be able to become the success story that he is and also by utilizing a black manager, Dr Dre, to gain more African American acceptance and fan-base.

Hip hop music is mostly associated with African Americans. For Eminem, the case is quite different as he has successfully stood out in the industry despite his cultural orientation. He stresses that he should not be referred to as a white rapper, rather he emphasizes on being categorized as a rapper with skill and talent. The rapper’s success has to do with his authenticity since the beginning. The question of authenticity has always been reflected in many areas. This notion has been in existence in the history of popular music. The question focuses on the link between the performer and composition. There is some significance of authenticity attached to authenticity in the music industry. There are three kinds of authenticity that Eminem is firmly grounded in. The first one is that there is a concern on what pertains to on being true to oneself. In addition, rap music illustrates individuality and self-creation as a value (Edward 120). This is because the music prioritizes the territorial alliances and local allegiances of the artist. The third kind of authenticity is on the question of whether a performer has proximity and requisite relation to an original source of rap.

Eminem distinguishes himself from other rappers for whom he is keen with his lyrics and this represents a form of authenticity. For instance, the rapper is not in the business of committing offences detailed in the lyrics of his songs.  This implies that the lack of correspondence between lyrics and actions is essential to standard rap discourse. Authenticity claims that an individual is natural that is without artifice. This process is referred to as naturalization. A means of accomplishing naturalization, for artists to legitimize themselves in the industry is to illustrate the historic relations between them and others that are already recognized as main figures in the music field. This is what has made Eminem successful in his rap music where his links with Dre have established his authenticity. This even made his producer to testify that he was not worried that people would react against Eminem based on his white race. Eminem has a lot of skills and clearly understands what he does as concerning music. Authenticity, in this case is not as simple as one may tend to think. Rather, it is a social construct that is agreed-upon. Lack of this consensus implies that the notion is wrong. This has cleared out the problem that he is a white involved in music that is associated to the African American culture. In fact, people have now begun to acknowledge his work as the best worldwide. The rapper has established his image firmly in the industry and presents himself as a distinct social cultural and identification subject (Erick 190).

The rapper uses the efforts of white rappers who have failed and succeeded to create hip hop. This is a tactic or strategy that is exceedingly useful in the music field as it enables the rapper come out in a unique way that gives his fans something to talk about. Through this process, the rapper is able to understand essential themes to include in his music. This is an aspect that differentiates the rapper from others in the same field. In short, this is a talent or skill that the rapper has got and uses it to his advantage. Standing out as the best in a field where matters of socio-culture are involved is not an easy task, but Eminem blends these aspects perfectly to produce the best results (Marcia 475). In most cases, as mentioned earlier, this type of music is associated with the African Americans and mostly, viewed negatively especially by the older generation in contrast with the younger generations. This means that authenticity is not sufficient in this. Rather, the rapper’s passion and ability for hip hop music add to the authenticity notion of the rapper to create success.

Acting as oneself cannot be ignored while discussing the success of Eminem. The rapper’s idea of oneself is what has made his albums including ‘The Slim Shady’, ‘recovery’, ‘Just Lose It’, and ‘My name is’ among many others to be successful after their launch (Marcia 481). Eminem introduces himself as a rapper who has just got the skills and talent. The lack of establishing himself as a white rapper is crucial for his success. This is because he establishes the idea that music is not for a particular type of social culture or class. Eminem, therefore, appears and he is represented as a unique character in the hip hop music, who does not depend on what people say about the music. This does not imply that Eminem is not concerned with how people think or feel about his music, rather, the rapper ensures that he remains true to what he does as it is part of him (passion). This is the reason why his manager Dre has so much faith in the rapper, as well as, what the rapper does (Fraley 38).

Dr. Dre has played a significant role in the .success of Eminem. The fact that he is black has enabled Eminem gain acceptance and fan-base from the African Americans. Being a white, it is difficult for him to penetrate the industry especially in African American cultures. Thus, Eminem has gained considerable support from these groups as he is represented by the knowledgeable Dre. His position as a white has also played a key role in the rapper’s success. Using this position to his advantage has brought significance to the world of hip-hop music (Fraley 40). The identity aspect does not become a thing of question anymore as the rapper does not identify with culture. Instead, Eminem identifies with his talent and skill in his hip hop music, which has differentiated him from other rappers in the industry.

The three main aspects combined are significant in explaining the success of Eminem in his hip hop music. Eminem represents a character that has attained adoration and admiration from so many fans across the world. Gaining this success was, however, not an easy thing especially because of obstacles such as socio-cultural factors involved. For instances, the circumstances under which the rapper was brought up were somehow challenging. The same circumstances are what made him develop passion for music. Challenges during the first times of his profession were overcome later by his authenticity and ability to maintain his position in the industry. The name Eminem is common among many people and especially the younger generations who are fond of his music. The rapper insists that race is a made up thing, and this is why he denies that he is neither a black or white rapper. This should establish a strong basis upon which other upcoming rappers in the industry should base their ideas upon.

 

Works Cited

Edward G., Armstrong. “Eminem’s Construction of Authenticity.” Popular Music and Society 27.3 (2004): 111-130. Print.

Eric King, Watts. “Border Patrolling and ‘‘Passing’’ in Eminem’s8 Mile.” Critical Studies in Media Communication 22.3 (2005): 187-206. Print.

Fraley, Todd. “I Got a Natural Skill. . .: Hip-Hop, Authenticity, and Whiteness.” The Howard Journal of Communications 20.1 (2009): 37-54. Print.

Marcia Alesan, Dawkins. “Close to the Edge: The Representational Tactics of Eminem.” The Journal of Popular Culture, 43.3 (2010): 463-485. Print.

 

 

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Green Accounting or Environmental Accounting

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Abstract

Various States have their own policies and programs for the formulation and implementation of green accounting. Nevertheless, there is no country with regulations and rules in place necessitating firms to issue a firm-wide stand-alone report on the performance on the environment, which can affect zonal, regional, and international societies. This research paper aims at exploring the concepts of green accounting and the probability of widening the applicability of the green reporting concepts to be used by government officials to make businesses responsible for their externalities. The paper discusses the significance of green accounting as a section of the accounting knowledge and education, outlines the pas and the present mandatory and regulatory status of green accounting and its association with different professions. It also proposes a compulsory environmental filing system and examines its probable benefits and characteristics. The fundamental aim of the system is to track the entire life cycle of every key resource and to gauge the impact of businesses on the hosting community.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table of Contents

Abstract

Table of Content

Background of the study

Relevance of the study

Need for the project

Intended population of the project

Importance of the study

Project Description

Objectives of the study

Literature Review

Present status of Environmental accounting

Environmental accounting implementation Awareness

Stand-Alone Implementation of Environmental accounting and Reporting

Mandated Environmental accounting and Reporting Annual Reports

Standards for Environmental Reporting

Sustainable Development

Research Methodology

Research Findings

Recommendations and Conclusion

Bibliography

 

Background and Relevance of the study

The origin of the green accounting is not a new addition in the legal systems. However, when often discussing it, it is reflected as a new addition to the legal systems and jurisprudence in the world. Studying varied religious views on the issue of environmental conservation highlights matters clearly mentioned on the significance of this form of education. Thus, it has a long history. Since the 1970s, there has been literature on environmental accounts in some countries. For example, the works of Henry Peskin at RFF on the design of accounts for the United States are some of the earliest resources on green accounting. There was a concerted effort in the 1980s by institutions such as The World Bank, UNSTAT, and the UNEP (Burritt, 2011). For instance, the publication by UNSTAT called ‘Handbook for Integrated Economic and Environmental Accounting was published in 1997. Additionally, UNEP with UNSTAT in conjunction with other experts prepared a practical manual for adopting the System of Environmental Accounting.

Over the last 20 years, about 25 countries have experimented with environmental accounting. In Norway, some information was identified as relates to energy resources and air pollution in the State. The country started collecting data on sources of energy, forests, fisheries, and minerals to address scarcity of resources in the 1970s. Over the years, Norwegians have extended their accounts to incorporate data on air pollutant emissions. According to Burritt (2011), the inclusion of this information allows them to predict the impact of varied growth patterns on conformity with global conventions on pollutant emissions. They use this information as an input into a macro economic approach. The first country for which forest depletion was carried out into a green GDP was Indonesia (Darabi et al., 2012). This was carried out with the support of the World Resources Institute. The government of Indonesia has been investigating its system of environmental accounting. On the other hand, Namibia has been putting into action the approach based on various natural resources such as land degradation and the allocation of water.

The government of Netherlands has been creating the National Accounting Matrix, which includes Environmental Accounts. The information is used to trace how far the State is from the environmental protection goals and objectives. Chile’s Central Bank undertook to build up environmental accounts getting concerned with the mineral resources and forest. Additionally Costa Rica took part in an exercise of forest depletion related to that of Indonesia with the support of the Institute of Costa Rican Centro Cientifico Tropical and the World Resources Institute (Darabi et al., 2012). The Philippine government has been carrying out some tasks on the same issue. Specifically, the Natural Resource Accounting Project is identifiable in this regard. The U.S. has not been a leader in the arena of environmental accounting. In the administration of Clinton, the Bureau of Economic Analysis made an incursion into environmental accounting in the mineral sector.

Relevance of the study

Environmental accounting is an essential tool for comprehending the significance of the natural environment in the economy. Green accounts give data that outlines the contribution of natural resources to economic welfare and the expenses caused by resource degradation or pollution (Aronsson and Lofgren, 2010). Green accounting is a proposed discipline, which deals with the inclusion and the consideration of the procedures of accounting, specific and general issues associated with social and environmental impacts, restrictions, and regulations. The commencement of this proposed inclusion and consideration of Environmental accounting and reporting should be in college syllabus in the form of case studies, collateral reading assignments, and scientific and public student awareness in advanced and intermediate accounting courses in order to examine present state and future concerns of environmental accounting and reporting.

Albeit much attention is paid to environmental concerns in the accounting field, in many higher learning institutions, the general notion about the application and adoption of the green accounting and reporting in the real world is lagged behind. This arises from two main causes; incomplete or lack of incomplete comprehending of the social and environmental impacts of green accounting and reporting. The other cause is the insufficiency of the required auditing and accounting procedures and tools for implementing the green accounting and reporting. As concerns the real adoption, lack of adaptation arises from three main reasons. First is the lack of clear-cut tools and regulations of implementing the green accounting and reporting (Aronsson, and Lofgren, 2010). The second cause is the scattered roles of imposing and implementing of green accounting along with accounting standard setters, legislatures, governmental accounting and professional organizations, social and environmental agencies. The third reason, on the other hand, is inexperienced corporations personnel to fully and forthrightly describe the environmental activities in stand-alone environmental disclosures and corporations’ annual reports. Additionally, there are no formalized formats for the presentation of information on environment either in components of annual reports or stand-alone reports.

Accounting educators feel that their willingness to teach matters on the environment is obstructed due to learners’ unawareness of environmental concerns particularly in their early studies. During the 1980s, studies focused on reporting matters specifically related to Safety, Health, and Environmental reporting. For instance, Triple Bottom Line was based on environmental quality, social justice, and economic prosperity. Presently, only few countries across the globe have substantial requirements for environmental accounting and reporting. In addition, up to date there are no formalized formats for environmental information presentation in reports. To lessen the gap between the real application and educational aspect of environmental accounting and reporting, a number of steps are proposed. The first is the creation of agencies or societies of environmental accounting and reporting to undertake the responsibilities of studying and examining the case and scientific studies in documented and open literature that is available (Smith, 2011). Additionally, they should be responsible for unifying common regional or global environmental accounting terminologies and aspects. Furthermore, they should set starting directions and points for environmental, governmental, managerial and social personnel and educators. They should also implement standardized templates and formats for green accounting and reporting. The second step proposed is to develop the required legislature for adopting and examining the green accounting in reports of corporations. Moreover, there is a need to define and stipulate the recognition of and assessment of liabilities for environmental remediation (Smith, 2011). There is a need to facilitate taxation policies to include incentives of environmental accounting and reporting. These steps show the significance of environmental accounting, and, therefore, the significance of the research. The implementation of environmental accounting and reporting has and is becoming a growing concern in many nations.

As mentioned earlier, the project is essential and may be used by learners, environmental, governmental, and social institutions in understanding the key aspects of environmental accounting and reporting. There is a need to carry out the research in order to identify the benefits and drawbacks associated with green accounting and reporting.

Project Description

As discussed earlier, environmental accounting is an essential tool for comprehending the function performed by the natural environment in the economy. New programs and policies have been developed such as the Green Accounting Initiative; to assist the members comprehend ho the tool can assist them in improving environmental management (Smith, 2011). Green accounting refers to adjustment of the National Accounts System to integrate the depletion or use of natural resources. Green accounting is essential for a number of reasons. This leads to the objectives of the study. The general objective of the study is to find out why implementing environmental accounting is of great significance. The specific objectives of the study include establishing the benefits of adopting environmental accounting and reporting, determining the main drawbacks to the implementation process, and establishing ways to lessen the gap that exists between the educational aspect and the applicability of green accounting and reporting. These will be analyzed through looking at the present status of environmental accounting and reporting.

Literature Review

There are some essential unpublished and published works on matters related to green accounting and reporting. There has been increasing pressures on the environment, as well as, environmental awareness, which have created the need to report for the interaction between all the economy’s sectors and the environment (Debnath et al., 2012). Conventional national accounts are concerned with the measurement of economic growth and performance as represented in the marketplace activity. Additionally, it deals with the sustainability of development and growth, the coverage and scope of economic accounting that requires to be widened to incorporate the application of natural assets and losses that are non-marketed in income- creation arising from the degradation and depletion of natural capital. These conventional reports do not apply the frequently applied adjustment for depreciation for man-made assets to natural assets. Because sustainable development comprises environmental and economic dimensions, it is crucial that national reports represent the application of natural assets together with produced capital consumption (Debnath et al., 2012).

Present status of Environmental accounting

Environmental accounting implementation Awareness

A number of nations have their implementation policies for Environmental Accounting. One way for holding businesses responsible for their actions is to require them to report on the actions. Over the last 20 years, the breadth and level of reporting on environmental matters have increased radically as a consequence of accounting standard setting, governmental regulations, and voluntary reporting. According to Aronsson, and Lofgren, (2010), environmental and external reporting performance, today occurs through Pollution Release and Transfer Registers, as elements of traditional financial reports. The requirement for corporate reporting of financial and environmental performance has realistic potential in offering a higher level of visibility to the activities of the environment and impacts on and providing insights on what is frequently invisible to concerned social groups and the government. It is also essential to acknowledge that visibility is not the only probable impact of corporate reporting in this arena, but instead its future expectations for development and sustainability. It is indeed possible that such reporting can reduce negative liability or effects about a firm and its environmental activities. Additionally, firms are interested in the potential for environmental reporting to rise their spread and legitimacy in the wider world.

Stand-Alone Implementation of Environmental accounting and Reporting

Presently, there is no country with official regulations that require firms to issue reports on their environmental performance on their own. With the introduction of legislation in Sweden in the year 1989, all activities that require special permits as a result of the incidence of environmental hazards should present an annual report on the environment to the appropriate authorities. According to Debnath et al. (2012), as from 1996, firms in Denmark with considerable environmental effect have been required to submit a green account, giving in details considerable energy consumption, water, and consumption of raw materials. In 1999, Netherlands began setting it a mandatory that firms with significant environmental implication submit environmental reports for the public and the government on identified sites of operations (Debnath et al., 2012). Contents of the report to the government are validated by governmental authorities and include information on soil pollution, emissions, soil clean up, and the firm’s environmental policy. The number of firms that willingly issue these kinds of reports on environmental performance have been on the increase just like the diversity of forms of reports submitted. A majority of reporting firms prepare health, safety, and environmental report. In the recent years, however, firms are also concerned with social issues.

Mandated Environmental accounting and Reporting Annual Reports

Information contained in traditional yearly financial reports is mandated by a lot of national governments, stock exchange regulatory bodies, and accounting standard-setting bodies. In the environmental disclosure sphere, professional regulators or governmental agencies’ intervention is essential because various scholars argue that voluntary environmental reporting cannot work (Farouk et al., 2012). In addition, the most critical financial matters associated with environmental accounting is the disclosure of potential liabilities related to environmental clean ups. Presently, a firm subject to the Annual accounts Act (AAA) must include inn the directors’ report the disclosures of the impact of the environment of the firm’s activities and the utilization and disposal of its products. Firms are also supposed to report the measures in place in order to reduce or prevent their negative impacts of the environment and their consumption of energy and raw materials. Members of the European Commission are encouraged to enhance increased degrees of matters of measurement and recognition of environmental assets, liabilities, contingent liabilities, and expenses to establish an essential part of a firm’s policies, as well as, improvements on environmental protection, emissions, and resource consumption (Farouk et al., 2012).

Starting in 2004, firms had to disclose some non-financial information such as information associated with environmental concerns in order for users of annual reports to gain a comprehension of the firm’s growth and development, position, or its performance in the industry the firms belongs to. This applies to all firms whose financial results and positions are influenced by environmental matters. The Accounting Standards Board issued in the United Kingdom, in 2005, requires the firm management to prepare financial reports with the inclusion of environmental matters information where appropriate (Farouk et al., 2012). The guide of implementation that accompanies the standard recognizes that the appropriate degree of disclosure on matters of the environment is industry-specific. However, it suggests that all firms face matters related to energy and water consumption, waste, and climatic changes. Moreover, Australia has lately passed legislation associated with compulsory environmental reporting in the annual reports. The level of compulsory disclosures of environmental matters in traditional yearly reports has increased drastically over the last decade.

Standards for and Benefits of Environmental Reporting

The International Organization for Standardization issued ISO 9000 in 1987. This is a standard that fundamentally concerns itself with quality management. On the other hand, ISO 14000 focuses on environmental management while ISO 14001 is concerned with addressing the management systems of the environment (Hajek, 2012). It is of global concern that some companies may choose only what to report, therefore, reporting only the ‘good news’ of the company. Additionally, there is the problem of verification of green reporting given the unclear standards. It is essential to note that, during the establishment of financial accounting standards, most activities of business were country specific. Consequently, the accounting standards are being implemented at a slow rate. However, to some extent, they are being accepted across the world. According to Hajek (2011), this comes with excess positive implications with the adoption of environmental policy and considerably negative implications for firms that have prosecution issues with environmental agencies. It has been noted that environmental responsibility results to higher dividends for firms that have adopted the environmental policy. Therefore, it is right to argue that a good environmental policy establishes an ethical corporation.

Sustainable development (to be continued)

 

References

Darabi, R., Akbari, M., & Mohamadi, S. (2012). Analyzing environmental accounting position. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 4(3), 42-52.

Debnath, S., Bose, S. K., & Dhalla, R. S. (2012). Environmental Management Accounting: An Overview of its Methodological Development. International Journal of Business Insights & Transformation, 5(1), 44-57.

Farouk, S., Cherian, J., & Jacob, J. (2012). Green Accounting and Management for Sustainable Manufacturing in Developing Countries. International Journal of Business & Management, 7(20), 36-43.

Hajek, M. (2012). Forestry externalities in the environmental management accounting system. Problems of Management in the 21st Century, 5(1), 31-45.

Jaipiem, K. (2012). Environmental management accounting practices and firm value: an empirical investigation of iso 14000 firms in thailand. Review of Business Research , 12(3), 1-26.

Smith, R. (2011, April 14). Environmental Accounting and Reporting | Applications | Oracle. Oracle | Hardware and Software, Engineered to Work Together. Retrieved March 25, 2013, from http://www.oracle.com/us/products/applications/green/accounting-reporting-410442.html

Aronsson, T., & Lofgren, K.-G. (2010). Handbook of environmental accounting. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Burritt, R. (2011). Environmental management accounting and supply chain management. Dordrecht [etc.: Springer.

 

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Casual Work

Casualisation in the nursing workforce – the need to make it work

In societies, there are social issues that face individuals. These issues range from poverty, poor health to challenges such as casual work and homosexuality in society. Becker et al. (2010) highlights some of the challenges that the nursing profession face in response to increased casualisation of its workforce, as well as, why the presence needs to be viewed in a positive way.

Becker et al. (2010) argue that a higher percentage of nurses work in non-standard kinds of employment such as casual and part-time as a result of the increase in casualisation of the nursing workforce in recent years. According to Becker et al. (2010), the change from the standard forms of employment has been due to economic and competitive pressures. Research shows that the change towards casual work has been on the increase and estimates reveal that one in four employees, in Australia, is a casual worker. According to Becker et al. (2010), this is one of the highest rates in the modernized world. In the United States, it is approximated that between 20-27 percent of workers in the health and education sectors are categorized as casual workers. People in casual labor, work on an irregular and short-term basis. Workers choose casual labor in order to gain flexibility. In addition, casual labor is associated with workers with lesser commitment levels.

In order to establish the challenges that casual laborers face, the researcher studied the nursing workforce globally. The subjects analyzed were nurses who work or wish to work as casuals.

The researcher found out that the care giving tasks of a mostly female workforce and the ageing of the nursing personnel globally means some nurses are choosing or need to work as casual employees to remain in the labor force. Historically, casual laborers have been perceived in a negative way particularly in debates on commitment (Becker, 2010). The significant part of the nursing personnel may be lost if there is no change in attitude for nurses who work as casuals. An ageing nursing labor force, as well as, a universal scarcity of nurses implies that employers should ensure alternatives exist to accommodate nurses who require flexible schedule so as to encourage enrollment and retention. Policies and programs are required to ensure that all staff feel appreciated and supported and are capable of contributing to their profession (Becker, 2010). Maintaining a portion of the workers in a flexible form will allow an increase staffing options, as well as, ensuring that ample knowledgeable employees are available to maintain quality care to patients.

Sexual Behavior among Casual Workers in an International nightlife resort

There is little information, which is known, about the sexual conduct of those who extend time overseas through casual work. The authors sought to find out the sexual behavior among casual workers. Casual work according to the authors is a social problem as it leads to other issues such as infection and spread of sexually transmitted diseases (Hughes & Bellis, 2006).

According to Hughes & Bellis, (2006), many countries are experiencing a decline in sexual health especially amongst young population. The increase in the rates of travels to abroad means that sex is a considerable aspect in the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. Casual workers in nightclubs and bars earn relatively low amounts of income as compared to other workers in standard work. A high number of people travel to abroad to work as casual laborers. Therefore, young people working abroad may engage in sexual activities with travelers. This is exhibited by the seasonal visits to health clinics either due to illnesses related to sexual activities or termination of pregnancies. This occurs especially at summer holidays. Casual laborers at international resorts undertake such sexual activities with travelers in order, to gain extra finances. However, the risk that the casual workers expose themselves is high as they mostly engage in unprotected sexual behavior (Hughes & Bellis, 2006). In Spain, Ibiza is among the famous holiday resorts for young people (British). Here, those people that have no partners engage in sexual activities with the casual workers. This is the opposite of what casual workers should do as other casual laborers are placed to deliver health interventions to travelers.

In order to achieve their objectives, researchers used questionnaires on British bar and nightclub workers. In addition, questionnaires were administered on people from Britain who visited Ibiza for exclusively holiday purposes. The authors discovered that 80.5% of people that arrived in Ibiza engaged with intimate relationships with casual workers during their stay. The researchers found out that casual laborers in nightclubs and bars abroad are a key risk for sexual health. They are also a probable agent for the global spread of sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS. According to Hughes & Bellis, (2006), casual workers at these places are a chief target group for sexual health promotion, as well as, well-trained; they are placed to send sexual health interventions to young travelers (Hughes & Bellis, 2006).

 

References

Becker, S., McCutcheon, H., & Hegney,, D. (2010). Casualisation in the nursing workforce – the need to make it work. . Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, 28(1), 45-51.

Hughes, K., & Bellis, M. (2006). Sexual Behavior among Casual Workers in an International nightlife resort: a Case Control Study. BMC Public Health, 6(39), 46-60.

 

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