Category: Samples

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FortBake Oven

A pictorial representation of an object not only defines its physical attributes, but also presents a narrative of other attributes. In this light, FortBake is an image that depicts an oven, presenting both its traits and purposes. It is notable that the principal focus of the picture is the oven itself and not those around it. As a result, the viewer gets a feel of both the internal and external sections of the oven. A male and female individual can also be seen in the picture with the former using a hand fork to turn the baking bread. These individuals can be considered as a portrayal of the disparate purposes of the oven. In essence, the picture is a guide of how the oven is utilized in its functions with the people around it being used as a demonstration of how it is used.

Formal Analysis

The picture portrays the theme of working together. It shows how man and woman can perform the same task. For instance, the viewers see how the man and the woman are baking; they form a mood of working in their minds. Additionally, they form a mood where man and woman are working together to bake the cake. On the other hand, other viewers can form the theme of a serious society. According to the picture, the man and the woman are seriously working together towards the completion of their task. The colors of the picture can speak to the viewers. This is because the white and black colors are blending in together with the help of shades of cream and other colors (ICW-NET, LLC. 2011).

From the observation, it can be noted that the picture contains varied textures. The picture has both a smooth feeling and a rough texture. This rough texture is portraying the different tasks of the oven while the smooth texture is for showing the outline of the different pictures. In addition to this, the smooth texture of the picture helps the viewers to observe the features of the oven. (ICW-NET, LLC. 2011). In general, the texture of the picture describes the parts of an oven and functions of an oven giving the viewers a clear picture of how an oven looks like and how it can be used.

Interpretation

There is a deeper meaning behind the naked eye. What people are seeing in the picture is the man and the woman baking the cake. What should be noted in the picture, are the roles played by the different genders in the society. It can be seen that men are superior to women. Women are being treated like slaves while their counterparts are being treated like kings. This is because the man in the picture is given a tool, the hand fork to use because kings or the superiors do no want to get themselves dirty or tired. On the other hand, the woman is only using her hands exposing herself to certain dangers like being burnt. The slaves were the only people who were exposed to danger by their superiors (ICW-NET, LLC. 2011).

Secondly, the colors of the pictures show the peace and harmony on one side, evil on the other side. The white color surrounding the man and the woman shows that they are peaceful in their homes. Additionally, it shows that the man and the woman were meant to be together thus resulting to marriage. Moreover, it has completed what the circle of the society. On the other hand, the black color shows how the woman is being oppressed when it comes to work. The men are selfish hence; they do not want to hurt themselves. Instead, they use the women as there servants, exposing them to danger. This shows the darker side of men where they are inhuman.

Over the holidays, I was privileged to visit one of the most reputable museums in America, FortMaconMuseum. The museum is located at the heart of FortMacon, North California. From the outside, one is aware that he or she is entering a museum. The surrounding has different artifacts that can amaze a person from a far making him or her enter the museum. Inside the museum, the artifacts are conveniently placed based on their themes and stories. This is a breath taking experience and informative.

 

References

ICW-NET, LLC. (2011). Fort Macon. Retrieved from: http://www.crystalcoast.com/fortmacon/

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Remember Me by Mary Higgins

Remember me is a book written by Mary Higgins. It reveals the story of a criminal legal representative and his wife who are both hoping for the restoration of their failing marriage. The story reveals the tragic incident faced by the couple in which they lost their first two-year-old child through a fatal accident. The tragic incident of Menley’s firs child known as Bobby occurred when her car was smashed by a train at a railway road crossing (Clark, 1994). This made her suffer from a psychological disorder known as posttraumatic stress, and this gave reason for their marriage to fall apart. However, Menley discovers about her second pregnancy and once the child is born, the couple decides to move to a new house. In addition, their marriage is restored through the birth of their second female child known as Hannah (Clark, 1994). In addition, the wife and husband appear to be very determined in giving hope to their marital relationship while being unaware of an enemy who has planned an unusual plan for them. In addition, the book describes the couple’s joy of relocating to a new area known as Cape Cod. The author describes Menley’s excitement and anticipation as she heads to the airport with her husband. She makes an effort to be optimistic about the plan of moving to Cape in order to try and forget the past tragedy that she experienced. Although, as they head to the airport, they discover that it is closed, but this does not stop them from continuing with their traveling plans. As a result, Adam decides to rent a car in order to drive his family to the intended destination in Cape. Menley is shown preparing and packing the requirements including candles in case the new place ran out of electricity. However, this does not stop the lawyer’s wife from blaming herself for the first child’s death, but the peacefulness in their new Cape residence offers the couple a fresh start of a promising and hopeful future (Clark, 1994). Menley’s husband, Adam chose to rent the house in Cape Cod because he believed that it was peaceful since it was where his family ancestors had settled and therefore, it could be a way of returning to his roots. In addition, it would be the perfect place for his family. In addition, Menley would consider it as the best fit since it was quieter when compared to the former residence in the noisy city of New York. She was suffering from depression due to the tragedy of her first child, she therefore needed to be surrounded in a peaceful, and quiet environment that would help her face and get over that tragedy (Clark, 1994). The house that is being rented in is known as the Remember house, which was a landmark in the eighteenth century, in which a captain constructed it for his spouse. The place bore an ominous myth in which the captain left his wife after he learnt about her unfaithfulness and hence took their child with him. The author continues to describe various bizarre incidents faced by the couple that forces the lawyer’s wife also known as Menley to reflect on the tragic accident of her first child. As a result, Menley’s fear increases as she thinks about the safety of her second child. Menley is also shown attempting to recover from her first child’s death as she visits, an old house in which her first husband was raised (Clark, 1994).

The story describes how difficult it becomes as she tries to adapt to the surrounding. Shortly, she begins to be haunted by a creepy distant voice that leaves her puzzled as to whether she is being disturbed by guilt or if her first dead child is trying to communicate to her an important message. When Menley is alone at their new residence, she is frightened by strange sounds including the train passing through the house and her dead son calling out her name. These occurrences end up torturing Menley emotionally and psychologically to the extent that it puts her relationship with Adam in great risk for a second time. This is because Adam appears to be puzzled as to whether his wife is mentally loosing herself or there is some rationality in what she is going through (Clark, 1994). The events experienced by Menley cause her to suffer memory loss. For example, at a scene in the story, she forgets waking up in the late night to move and cover up her daughter. As a result, she assumes that all this is happening to her because of suffering from posttraumatic stress from the tragic accident. Although the timing is too late, Menley realizes that something baleful is happening at the Remember residence, in which she may not be able to survive. This is because she has no clue of the hideous intentions her enemy has planned (Clark, 1994). The story also describes the incident where Menley’s husband, Adam handles a crime case, in which his client is being considered as a suspect in a murder scene. In addition, this crime accusation happen the same time the client’s wife, whom he has been married to for three months, dies through the drowning in a storm. The suspect known as Scott Covey is accused of murder immediately after his wealthy wife drowns in a violent storm on financial grounds (Clark, 1994).

Since his wife was rich, it was assumed that Scott Covey might have intended to kill his wife in order to acquire all her wealth. Menley shows empathy for Covey’s situation that she persuades her husband to pursue the case. Despite the strange incidents faced by Menley, trouble continues to follow her and Hannah, and there is a high possibility that it is not connected to the case in which her husband is pursuing. The book describes how Adam gets significant help in handling the case from a close female friend known as Elaine. During Menley and her husband’s stay at the house, Menley decides to conduct a research for a book she intends to write and discovers a number of fascinating elements about the house through her research work. The book also describes how aside from carrying out research, Medley writing for a certain travel magazine about the town she and her family relocated in (Clark, 1994). As she proceeds with her writing, she also discovers about the distressing history behind the Remember house and speculates if the mystery uncovered is worth resolving. Despite the strange incidents occurring in the house, the story’s conclusion reveals the relevance of those events tied together.

Reference

Clark, M. H. (1994). Remember me. New York: Simon & Schuster.

 

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Book Review

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Abstract

As some theorists try to downplay the thoughts of other academicians on matters concerning the field of international relations, the world is evolving and developing thus bringing forth new challenges. Sullivan tries to take the reader through this field in a historiographical manner, clearly highlighting the main cause of the dilemma among these theorists.   

Book Review

Part 1

Summary of Content

Michael P. Sullivan’s Theories of International Relations: Transition vs. Persistence, which was published in the year 2001 by Palgrave Macmillan, analyzes the reasons why theorists in international relations prefer to put their own framework in higher esteem as compared to others brought forth in the same field. Each theorist feels that their framework is superior to others and that others can be brusquely called off. By historiographically analyzing the diversity in this field, the author tries to make sense of this dilemma.

In his book, Sullivan sees the dependent variables in this field’s theories as “changing chameleons”. It is by this assertion that the difficulty is instigated. Like chameleons, the latest developments in the real world have an effect on international relations thus influencing the developing theories. Although the changes may be positively influential in some instances, they may also have adverse effects in other cases. In other words, there may be confusion in some of the scenarios that are raised (Sullivan, 2001).

To further expound on this, Sullivan begins by recognizing the 1992 event when the United States got out of the Subic Bay. At this point, this occurrence was not significant in historical books since it was not out of the ordinary. It would not have made sense even if it had happened some forty years earlier. However, it would prove to be quite significant as it marked the end of the Cold War (Sullivan, 2001). If theorists of different periods were to come up with their concepts, each theory would classify the event with a different significance due to the significance of the event in different periods. This is why theorists have remained to be at ‘war’ with each other.

Many debates in this field dwell on every other reason apart from the behaviors of the studies. In most cases, the foci of the studies may either be in mutually exclusive or different behaviors (Sullivan, 2001). Additionally, some debates are rather repetitive. They have no originality and only try to bring points that have been discussed repeatedly with a change in the debaters. In such cases, there is only one thing that is left certain. Little progress has therefore been noted in the field of international relations.

Apart from addressing the major challenges facing this field, the book also draws some attention to some ways of addressing the problems in the field’s theories (Auger, 2001). One way can be through examining the development of the diverse strands of the field’s theory with the anticipation of identifying more clearly what each theory strives at explaining. The focus should be on the diversity of schools of thought. This is mainly on the points of agreement, disagreements and where one’s thoughts overlook the others. It should also be identified whether the theories being referred to as new are actually the old ones with a different name/title.

Through the levels of analysis given by Kenneth Waltz, the book categorizes the diverse theoretical debates in this field (Auger, 2001). The author examines the range of methods used to study international relations, varying from thoughts about the agency and individuals, to models of decision making. Others include debates concerning the nation state and a number of modifications of systems theories.

As Walz’s three levels confirm, the theories can either be categorized into Man, the state and war theories. Some theories fail to recognize the category into which their theories fall, or they fail to recognize the category into which the other theorists fall (Elman, 2002). In such confusion, these theorists tend to come against each other, instead of appreciating each others works. In other words, as the theorists’ persistence on the same areas of the international relations, they tolerate each others critics in order to emerge as the real theorists.

Over the past five to six decades, contemporary approaches to international relations theory have changed in a significant way. With the on-going changes, it is relevant that current intellectual fashions be adhered to (Kaya, 2003). It is also significant that the theory and practices be brought together in order to make sure that the desired results are not only theoretical but also practical in the real world. Demonstrating the difficulty of assessing the theories in competition is significance.

In most cases, the theories cannot be understood individually. It is important that each be related to the other rather than each being analyzed independently. The author feels that each theory has a relationship as much as it has a difference with the other theories in question. It is up to the professionals and the theorists to link the similarities, and identify the differences in order to come up with theories that develop the field of international relations rather than pull it apart.

People, which include nations, have a role to play when it comes to bringing forth structures and systems making up theories. People become close and sometimes antagonistic to the systems they dwell in. This is because familiarity can result to contempt and solace. Ideological and normative contemplations influence the kinds of systems we recognize, make and the systems we appreciate and do not appreciate (more often than not). This is how the nation state based models work.

In his work, Sullivan brings out fascinating advances in many fashions in which systems known internationally can be visualized (Wilson, 2002). As he identifies, the inherent problems occurring in all these systems and fashions can be solved in one way or another. In order to solve such problems, the main role players must migrate from the concrete level of the actors in the real world and stay in a systematic level of being aggressive. This process requires perspectives that are fertile and creative imaginations. They aid in rising above specifics to systems that have been conceptualized thus making them untouchable.

Nevertheless, the author appreciates that the different systems which make the theories in international relations must be in existence. These systems describe the diverse forms of behaviors, structures and patterns making up a particular area in the same field.  It is only unfortunate that most of the systems tend to give a description of the same concrete system. Such kinds of observations can be seen in the system analysis occurring in the 1950s and the 1960s. Due to the immense circulation over the same area that took place during this time, the analyses do not pertain to the developments taking place since.

For emphasis on the implications of the various debates arising through the various theories in this field, is the response to China’s state of rising power (Elman, 2002). From one angle, China’s rising power gives a threat in altering the balance of power experienced globally. This is a negative alteration especially because their ambition is being motivated by their growing influence. On the other hand, it is felt that the key to China’s conduct in the future will be a modification in their behavior through incorporation in the world markets and the extension of democratic principles.

Additionally, there are those who feel that the affairs between China and the rest of the world will be fashioned by identity and culture issues. In other words, the whole debate relies around China being treated as any other society in the world or being singled out as a society that is in need of special treatment. This makes Sullivan feels that some problems are just being approached differently yet they have been in existence for decades. If not so, he feels that this just the same problem being tackled differently yet conveying the same messages.

In a summary, Sullivan clearly puts it across that there is no single theory or approach that can bring forth the complexity in the field of international relations (Kaya, 2003). The different competing ideas are necessary although they should be used to the advantage of the field rather than being used to water down each others ideas. A single theoretical orthodox cannot be effective and efficient in this field. It is just that the theorists have not yet realized this aspect of the field.

As Sullivan clearly puts it, the competition is necessary. Each theory enables the professionals to identify the weaknesses and the strengths thus spurring the needed refinements. They also reveal the flaws appearing either in the previous structures and systems or the developing ones (Auger, 2001). It is significant that the inventiveness should be emphasized as compared to being invective. However, heterogeneity of modern-day scholarship should be welcomed and encouraged.

As well identified, the realism, constructivist and liberalism theories, amongst other theories have a converging point. The realists realize that ethnicity, nationalism, militarism and other factors are equally significant. The liberals identify that power is the centre of international behavior and constructivists acknowledge that there will be a greater effect of ideas if they are strengthened by states which are powerful and they are reinforced by persevering material forces (Wilson, 2002).

It is however, significant to identify the most significant in an area. As Sullivan takes note, the realists theories are the most used when it comes to matters concerning international relations. The balance of power is particularly significant to most states and so they spend more effort analyzing the areas of possible conflicts. As a result of such interests, most European and Asian countries have taken it upon themselves to expand the presence of the United States military in their respective regions. The NATO issue and the Kyoto environmental protocol are some of the events that have taken place showing that the theories concerning matters of international relations should blend towards improving relations rather than pulling them apart.

Part 2

Reaction to the Work

Relation of Work to what Learnt

The theories of realism, liberalism and constructivism learnt in this unit have been identified in this book by Sullivan. In the work learnt, the all the theories suggest diverse approaches to international relations. However, Sullivan tries to explain the similarities and the differences in each of the theories and how each can be used to strengthen the other instead of downplaying the other theory.

We have learnt that the realism theory shows that self-interested states are in constant competition for security and power. Liberalism main concern is for power being controlled by political and economic considerations. This means that the main desire is for commitment to the values of liberalism and prosperity. On constructivism theory, it perceives that the elite beliefs shape the state’s behavior. Social identity and collective norms also play crucial roles in shaping the behavior of the state.

Furthermore, we have identified that main installments of the realism theory is economic and military power to be specific, for liberalism theory are democracy promotion, economic exchange and international institutions, and for constructivism theory is discourse and ideas. On the prediction of post Cold War, realism advocated for the rebirth of explicit formidable competition and power. Liberalism advocated for increased cooperation due to free markets, liberal values and international institutions. Constructivists were agnostic since their theory could not predict the substance of ideas.

The limitations we have summarized are that the realism theory does not give a satisfactory account of the change experienced internationally. The liberalism theory does not give power the role it deserves. In other words, it overlooks the significance of power. The constructivism theory mostly dwells on the past and cannot be used for future purposes. It analyses past events but does not anticipate future events.

Relationship between Materials Used, Feelings, Expressions and Understanding

In his book, Sullivan explores the post Cold War and analyses the similarities and the diversities that the theories brought forth or predicted (Wilson, 2002). He also identifies the uniqueness of every theory and the diversity in the theories thus showing their significance in today’s international relations. However, there is the persistence that the realism theory suits best as on matters concerning international relations.

Emotionally, the work triggers a number of issues. First, there is the realization that a lot of people struggle from superiority complex. As Sullivan identifies, each of the theorists wants to feel that their theory is superior to the other. Such feelings not hinder the professionals from solving the real issues, but they also hinder students from seeking help from others. Everybody wants to disregard other people’s efforts since they feel that their efforts are worthwhile. Such feelings also hinder the professionals from realizing their own flaws. This same case applies to students of international relations. They concentrate so much on what they believe in and forget about the strengths in the other theories.

As a result, the book provokes one to appreciate the works of other professionals other than downplaying them. Similarly, the students in this field should appreciate the works done by those who were before them other than concentrating on the flaws that were in the researches. This is an evolving yet a developing world. The strengths and weaknesses of the theories of the past will enable us to get the solution of today’s problems. Otherwise, the professionals spend more time arguing out the differences instead of dwelling on the solutions, and then this field will remain stagnant.

Through reading the book, my understanding in the field of international relations and in writing was markedly improved. The author is one of the experts in this field. He has tried to tackle a weighty topic in a few pages. Through his understanding, I have been able to understand that the three theories should complement each other rather than work against each other. Although the diverse systems and structures are significant, it is also necessary to realize a consensus point.

Merit of the Work

As earlier mentioned, this book has been written by a person who has considerable experience in this field of international relations. He has many ideas and many things to write in so few pages (250 pages). Due to this virtue, the presentation and organization of the work has proved to be a daunting task. In order to present too many ideas in such a limited space, there is rapid procession of the topics (Auger, 2001). This means that there is rapid jumping of one topic to the other. For example, sixty years of the work and research done by the realists have only been put down on twenty eight pages.

In most cases, the author constantly uses “on one hand” and “on the other hand” in order to present his ideas. This kind of presentation plays a disadvantage and an advantage to the work. It is a disadvantage as it disrupts the flow of the author’s work. It also leaves the reader hanging on the conclusion of the point. The conclusion is uncertain. It is an advantage as it enables the reader to understand the two sides of the point the author is trying to present.

Due to his awareness of the field, the author has taken assumptions that the reader also has the same immense knowledge of the field (Kaya, 2003). There are no definite explanations of the theories and the theorists in international relations. A man like Kenneth Waltz has constantly been mentioned in this book, but there is no clear explanation of his argument. This presentation gives a challenge to the reader who has no knowledge in this field. He/she cannot be able to follow some of the contents in the book if not all.

The author has laid more emphasis on some theories as compared to other although he has tried to mention all the three theories. For example, the author has placed less emphasis on the constructivists’ theory. Although it may be one of the most recent theories to be brought forth, it will be a limitation to the readers who believe in this theory. More emphasis should have been given on this theory in order to convince the reader on its weaknesses or strengths rather than just stating them out.

Recommendation to others

The above mentioned are the flaws of the work. However, the book is very suitable for specialists. It gives one a neutral perspective of all the theories in this field in order to notice that one requires them all and not just one particular theory. It also analyses the various theories and then leaves the reader to make their own conclusion as much as the author gives his conclusion.

In the future, our understanding would be impecunious if the way we think would be limited to only one theory. The one who calls him/herself a diplomat should be mindful of the realist’s importance on the inevitable role of power, adhere to the liberalist’s responsiveness to domestic forces, and reflect once in a while on the vision of change of the constructivist. This is because they will all make a better professional as compared to relying on only one side of the system.

For those who are just beginning to understand the field of international relations, it is important that they first read on materials that have talked about the basics of this field. As earlier noted, this book does not give the details from scratch. It goes straight to the major theories and theorists as though the reader already knew about them initially. Since Sullivan is a well known professional in this field, the terminologies and concepts used can be well known by people at a higher level of learning or those who are at a higher understanding of the field.

The ongoing debates in this field must be well understood In order to come with an affirmative solution to the rising problems (Elman, 2002). This book is an excellent guide to those who have a major interest in this field. It is also of significance to the people who decide rethink the issues that relate to these debates. For one who does not have an idea whether they are talking about the same issues that have been discussed over the decades or they are raising other new issues, it is good to have this book at hand. It will help one sort out the difference.

 Conclusion

It is significant for everyone interested in the field of international relations to understand the diverse issues arising in this field. For those advancing, it is significant to understand that the world is changing, and so should the systems and structures governing the various fields change. For those beginning, it is good to recognize the similarities and the differences in each theory in order to understand what to anticipate in the future.

 

References

Auger, V. A. (2001). Theories of International Relations: Transition vs. Persistence by Michael P. Sullivan. The Journal of Politics, Vol. 66 (1): 282-321.

Elman, M. F. (2001-2002). Theories of International Relations: Transition vs. Persistence by Michael P. Sullivan. Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 116 (4): 685-687.

H.W Wilson Company. (2002). Book Review Digest, Volume 98. Michigan, H.W. Wilson Co.

Kaya, A. (2003). Book Review: Michael P. Sullivan, Theory of International Relations: Transition vs. Persistence. Millennium: Journal of International Relations.

Sullivan, M. P. (2001). Theories of International Relations: Transition vs. Persistence. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

 

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Financial Statements as a starting point for Managerial Accounting Reports

Financial information in the article is represented by specific figures that reflect the company’s performance over the previous financial year. The figure representing sales for the period ended in 1997 shows revenue from its sales of the phones amounted to $8.7 billion. Operating earnings had increased by 76% to a value of $616 in just a period of one year. This translates to $350 million in operating profits from the second quarter of the year 1997 to the second quarter of June 1998, which is a full fiscal year. The total assets owned by Nokia amount to $9.8 billion in that year. The manger expects the country to grow at an average of 25-30%. With the estimates of about 550 million new mobile phone users across Europe, Asia and the Americas, Nokia expects to dominate or outgrow such predictions that the larger mobile phone market share. Nokia had an operating margin of 18%, which is arrived at by expressing the net profit as a fraction of the sales, this shows that the total profits after deduction of the expenses and divided by the sales. This figure would enable users to be able to come up with the values for the total profits and the values for the expenses that were accrued in relation to that financial year

In accounting, Horizontal analysis refers to the comparison of financial information with information relating to more than two previous financial periods or the whole set of financial statements. This enables the managers, owners of the business to make decisions in relation to the business’s operations. It also enables them to focus on the deviations from the set targets; this is referred to as management by exception. The information derived from such comparisons of statements aids managers in drawing conclusions as to whether the entity is proving to be profitable enough to continue operating. Thus, relevant information such as analysis in relation to the article is the ratio on the net profit to sales (margin). It helps to analyze the cost of sales, and if the targets in sales have been met and thus aid in scrutiny of the causes of such disparities to help in the determination of investment decisions.

Vertical analysis is the act of proportionately analyzing items in a line, such that the line items are represented as fractions of other items. In a balance sheet, the common items are the assets and so the line items are represented as fractions of the assets. In the income statement, the common item is sales, which is used to arrive at the net income, so the line items in the income statement are expressed as fractions of sales such as margins, markups. Vertical analysis is clearly depicted in the article, it is represented by a margin of 18%, which is arrived by deducting the total expenses from the gross profit, and the result is then divided by the sales amount. Such an analysis helps management in knowing the related costs of products, the profits realized after deduction of the total expenses and the relation to sales. Thus, such information helps to conclude if the cost of sales is logical in relation to the profits realized and the need to make adjustments if necessary.

An internal decision maker requires actual values to help any user of the information to get a clear and precise view of the state of affairs of the entity. Accounting proportions given in financial information represent certain state of financial health, either healthy or unhealthy. An analysis of the information in the financial statement helps an internal decision maker in the determination of the kind of action that would be warranted by the different outcomes. Inconsistent data or data that has been merely estimated would result in making of decisions that would not be consistent with the actual information. This would result in wrong decisions that would be detrimental to the existence of the entity.

 

 

References

Friedlob,T.G., & Schleifer,F.L.L. (2003). Essentials of financial analysis. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons Publishers

Vance,E.D. (2003). Financial analysis and decision-making: tools and techniques to solve financial problems and make effective business decisions. Indianapolis, IN: Mcgraw Hill Professional Publishers.

 

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Modern Security Threat to the United States

Security refers to a state of being free from the threat of harm. Security threats to the United States have changed dramatically since the end of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet (modern day Russia) over Berlin’s actions. The major threats during the post-World War era only related to military action against the United States. However, this has entirely changed and the threats have increased with the aggressors coming up with new and innovative ways of executing these threats effectively. The threats include terror attacks, economic espionage, cyber espionage, diseases outbreaks. The threats have been classified by the United States according to the level that the government finds them manageable, even though all of them are serious.

The conventional weapons have increased dramatically, as the most emerging economies such as South Korea and eastern Europe countries are opting to venture into making their own weapons and distributing them to other buyers. The number of conventional weapons being purchased has steadily increased since the cold war era. This was because of fierce competition between the United States and the Soviet battled for the control of Third world countries (Caldwell and Williams 2). They supply them to other countries without proper control, which makes it hard to control the number, types of arms, and who receives such arms and the purpose of such arms. This elicits fears that there are chances of these arms falling into the hands of terrorist (Brown 14).

The threats have become a global security problem. They are not only limited to one country. The threats posed to the security of the United States have taken new forms to include threats to aspects such as economic security, food security; health security, cyber security. The quest for security has become an elusive one, due to a paradigm shift from traditional threats that were in the form of military aggression. The threats have strained the minimal resources due to the ever-growing population. These contemporary threats such as dirty bombs, biochemical weapons and cyber viral emulsion bombs are carried out by new countries that are growing fast economically and are trying to assert authority in the global scene via all means necessary. In the era of advanced technology, there have been new breakthroughs in the type arms that are being created by countries such as China, Venezuela, and Iran. Iran for instance, had been under much scrutiny and criticism from the United Nations Security Council and the world in general for its plans to create weapons of mass destruction. This led to a halt in its nuclear intentions but still there are suspicions that Iran is still pursuing the project. Libya, on the other hand, had already succeeded in the making of dangerous weapons. It is only after several years of diplomacy by the international community, it was forced to destroy the dangerous cache of weapons(Cortright and Lopez 12).

There are new diseases that have developed that have never been in existence. Anthrax was developed over two decades ago and poses a threat to the health of the United States population. Therefore, proper mechanisms must be put in place to prevent the massive spread of this disease that still has no cure. Some are biologically engineered to form an incurable disease. They are made with the aim of harming the target populations. Anthrax was engineered in the laboratory with an aim of infecting the enemy target population. Epidemics such as the much dreaded HIV/AIDS is a disaster around the globe and needs adequate attention in order to come up with concrete solutions such dedication of more resources to research for a cure of this disease that has claimed over 25 million people in the world (Caldwell and Williams 16).

Cyber security has been the most significant source of discontent within the United States security organs. This has been attributed to the fact that the United States is a main target of cyber related crime seeking to access economic or military information. The United States is solely the major target of extremism and other terrorist activities. They would be able to hack into the government databases and steal vital information. Moreover; they would even disable disaster response networks to give them a chance to launch an attack and thus maximize the fatalities. It has been an endless battle in trying to guard treasured information prompting the United States to set up a body in charge of protecting information. The organization, known as United States Cyber Command, has the role of protecting all information belonging to the United States government. This has enabled the United States to mitigate the risk of attacks from outside sources in the form viruses that are able disable their networks and steal vital information.

There is an eminent threat to food security in the world due to global warming. Changes in weather patterns have brought about strain food supply whereas the demand for food is increasing due to the increase in population levels. This makes the amount of food that is available to be very expensive, brought about by the dwindling supplies. This can only be solved by scaling down on greenhouse gas emissions to reduce the effects already caused so far. Climate change has been fueled by the use of non-renewable resources. These resources have become depleted leading to an imminent shortage in the available resources. This has created fierce competition between the developed countries for resources in the third world countries.

United States has had several terrorists’ attacks on its own home soil. This prompted the government to track down the terrorists into their hideouts in the Arab countries in a military offensive. Terrorists operate by spreading fear and panic to the public. The proliferation of arms across the world has led to very sophisticated arms landing into the hands of terrorists. They purchase such arms with funds from their extortionist rings, piracy operations or donations from sympathizers and their main financiers. In order to eliminate such groupings from operation, a nation would have to limit their operating capability by cutting off their supply of finances thus they wont be able to purchase their much needed arms and reduce their operating numbers via military action(Cortright and Lopez 211).

Most of the threats to the United States are orchestrated by specific countries.In order to avoid a conflict, the United States can use diplomatic resolutions and tighten their response systems to be able to monitor effectively the enemy operations towards the United States. There is need for adjustments in the policies to enable the co-ordination and sharing of information between the different arms of government involved in matters of security. The state of secrecy in operations of certain arms such as the famed Central Intelligence Agency or the Federal Bureau of Investigation is in some cases unwarranted and both need to conclude that they both have a common enemy. There is also a need to make treaties that enable sharing of information in the case of possible threats with regions and countries such as Canada, European Union and other friendly states without overriding their own jurisdiction. There is also need to tighten laws on offenders found guilty of association and intentional helping of terrorists to counter such activities.

 

Works Cited

Cortright, David, and Lopez, George A. Uniting against terror: cooperative nonmilitary responses to the global terrorist threatMassachusettes, Cambridge, Massachusettes Institute of Technology Press. 2007. Print.

Brown, Michael E. Grave new world: security challenges in the 21st century. Nothwest Washington, Washington D.C., Georgetown University Press. 2003.Print.

Caldwell, Dan, and Williams, Robert E. Seeking Security in an Insecure World. Lanham, Maryland, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. 2012. Print.

 

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Team W2

Question one

According to ethics and compliance of an organization in relation to the financial environment, there are rules and regulation that a company should follow. In the case of Microsoft Annual reports and SEC filings, the company has complied with the rules and regulations that are internationally accepted. This is because it is the ethical duty of Microsoft to provide both internal and external parties to the organization with the relevant financial reports. In this situation, Microsoft has provided their shareholders, investors and any other party interested with the relevant annual reports and SEC filings (The Microsoft Corporation, 2011).

Secondly, it is the ethical duty of Microsoft organization to provide the relevant parties with timely annual reports. This is because when they provide the relevant parties with late financial reports, they will be of no use since the financial trend of a business often changes. Therefore, based on the different annual reports and SEC fillings Microsoft organization has provided the relevant users of the reports in time for them for appropriate use. In this case, it has complied with international rules and regulation to provide users of financial statement at the right time.

According to the international financial regulations, it is the ethical duty for an organization to comply by providing users of financial statement with the correct statements. For instance, it is a rule to provide reports that have been audited by an external auditor. In this case, Microsoft organization has complied with this rule, and they have their financial documents audited by an external auditor, Deloitte & Touche (The Microsoft Corporation, 2011). This shows that the company has complied with the other requirements that involve honest and undistorted financial reports.  Henceforth, Microsoft organization has complied and played their ethical duty to users of the financial reports.

Question two

All organizational finance procedures are supposed to follow certain procedures that will create ethical behavior in the organization. All employees in accounting and finance department have a duty of care to all their customers and other users of the financial reports. This department follows a strict code of conduct covered by the Finance Code of Professional Conduct (The Microsoft Corporation, 2011). It contains all the rules and procedures that the organization is expected to follow to create ethical behavior in the office. Additionally, it contains all the penalties or disciplinary action taken to any person who violates the procedures and rules. This alone shows that Microsoft organization has ethical environment in their offices.

The company employees should follow the international financial rules and regulations while presenting the annual financial reports to their customers. In this case, the employees who are involved in the preparation of the financial reports must follow the procedures set by this authority (The Microsoft Corporation, 2011). Failure to do this, disciplinary action should be taken. By doing so, the Microsoft organization has already created ethical behavior on their offices and the outside environment. Additionally, they have shown a duty to care for their customers and other user of the financial statements.

Microsoft organization has adhered to the SEC regulations and procedures. This is where they have an independent Chief Executive to oversee the companies work. Additionally, they have a seven member independent committee that over see the SEC filing of the organization. According to the SEC procedures, there must be an independent Chief Executive officer and an independent team of board members that will oversee the SEC filling (The Microsoft Corporation, 2011). This alone show that the company is following their ethical duty by complying with the procedures. This has created ethical behavior in the financial environment of the company.

 

References

The Microsoft Corporation (2011). Corporate Compliance (Company website). Retrieved from http://www.microsoft.com

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Importance of Tales

            A tale can be defined as a story that connects facts from real life or imaginary experiences. Tales are very important because they enable individuals to understand themselves and their surrounding. This is because, in the tale, people are able to see how the characters relate to each other, what they aspire to be and how they choose to behave. As a result, individuals emulate what they have observed in making decisions in life situations that relate. An example of a tale that serves this function is known as Master Ciappelletto’s confession found in the book, the Decameron (Giovanni, Musa and Bondanella 5).

The tale narrates about a businessperson known as Ser Cepparello but seems to be given a common name, Ciapalletto because of his disreputable and wicked character.  The author describes how Ciapalletto decides to take a business trip on a location where his identity is completely unknown as a favor to one of his comrades. However, he suddenly becomes very sick and becomes the responsibility of two brothers from the capital of Italy.

Although, Ciapalletto’s condition then gets worse to the extent that he feels the need for a friar from a neighboring church to be called in order to make peace with his soul by giving his confession. However, Ciapalletto lies during the confession by making it seem like he lived a pure and blameless life. In addition, he pretentiously cringes as he talks about venial transgressions. The friar ends up believing in his confession and is the same one who gives a sermon on Ciapalletto’s life after his death (Giovanni and John 22). As a result, the friar talks about Ciapalletto as if he was a saint and the neighboring people who listen to the sermon end up believing him.

From this tale, one can learn that worldly possessions are only temporary and predetermined. In addition, with these possessions comes great consequences involving several dangers, anguish and struggle, which are subjected to inestimable risks. Therefore, it is impossible for any human being to protect himself or herself from being affected by these hazardous occurrences. However, the situation becomes possible if one lets a divine superior like God enable him experience grace that will give him the strength and courage to face these troubles.

In addition, God gives one the discernment that enables him or her to identify right from wrong. Relating to the story, Master Ciapalletto appears as one who committed wrongful actions including bribery and murder without facing any consequences. For example, he was proudly associated with murderers by assisting them to kill and committed blasphemy since he appeared to have an extreme temper. He was never in church and usually ridiculed religious ceremonial activities including the partaking of sacraments (Giovanni, Musa and Bondanella 7).

In addition, he was recognized for disrespecting and misusing women and possessing the habit of overindulgence in smoking and drinking. Luckily, he was unable to suffer the consequences because of receiving protection from a political ally known as Master Musciatto from the alliances and courts of law, which he damaged (Giovanni and John 23). However, as he travels for business, he suddenly suffers from a severe illness that leads to his death (Giovanni, Musa and Bondanella 9). This incident shows that the power he had in ruining people’s lives without paying for the consequences was temporary and meaningless.

As Ciappalletto’s time of dying was approaching, he was not focused in reflecting how wealthy and influential he was but on seeking divine intervention to make peace with his soul. This proves that worldly accomplishments become useless to an individual unless he recognizes and respects the great or divine authority behind the giver and owner of those possessions. Despite Ciappalletto mocking religion in the past, he referred to it for assistance when they asked for the friar to come and listen to his confession (Giovanni, Musa and Bondanella 9). This shows that divinity is considered more important than secularity since it determines our eternal wellbeing.

The story of Master Ciappalletto has made me realize that worldly possessions only become meaningful only when backed up by a divine purpose. Therefore, if a person concentrates on living a carefree life of possessing worldly possessions without recognizing his divine or spiritual identity, life becomes more meaningless because the divine owner of those possessions is not acknowledged. One can also learn that every action despite right or wrong must have a consequence. As Ciappalletto was committing all those transgressions, he probably thought that he would always get away with it.

However, the occurrence of the illness might have been a sign of making Ciappalletto face the consequences for his past mistakes. Despite the consequential occurrence, Ciappalletto lied as he was giving his confession to the friar (Giovanni and John 22). He might have considered that as long as he was able to get away with his actions in the past, the same would go for his final confession before his death.

Although, after his death, he might have received eternal condemnation because he did not come to terms with what he did. Perhaps, if he chose to be more sincere in his confession, he would have made peace with his soul and hence have a better eternal destiny. In addition, if he had tried to live a better blameless life, he probably would have been more at peace during his death, and hence there would be no need in confessing to the friar (Giovanni and John 22). Therefore, power and material possessions are not enough to provide happiness, peace or a sense of fulfillment to a person.

The next story found in the book, Arabian Nights, is the tale of the Ox and the Donkey. It talks about a rich merchant who comprehends the language of various animals. The merchant is described to own an ox and a donkey (Daniel 59). The donkey appears to be well treated by the merchant because it is well nourished, watered and stayed in a clean habitat. However, this case is the opposite for the ox because it appears to be always worn-out from carrying and pulling heavy loads of goods.

Therefore, the ox decides to discuss the matter with the donkey by first commending on how privileged it was. The donkey responds by offering the ox advice on how to deal with its situation (Daniel 59). The ox is told to pretend that it has fallen ill so that it does not suffer the tedious burden of work. However, the merchant overhears the two animals and as one of his servants approaches him about the condition of the ox, the merchant instructs him to replace the donkey for the job (Haddawy, Husain, Mahdi and Heller-Roazen 11). As a result, the donkey regrets the advice he offered the ox and decides to alter it.

Therefore, the donkey informs the ox that their master, who is the merchant, ordered one of his servants to kill it once it failed to recover its illness by the next day. As a result, the ox surprisingly shows signs of being cured the following day (Daniel 59). The merchant repeatedly overhears advice offered to the ox by the donkey, and in the following day, he goes to see the ox together with his wife. The ox appears to be bragging on the wellbeing of his physical abilities and strengths (Haddawy, Husain, Mahdi and Heller-Roazen 12). As a result, the merchant laughs and as his wife questions him on what he finds funny, he explains to her his God-given ability to comprehend the languages of animals. However, he clarifies that he is unable to uncover what the animals say to any other human being because the resulting consequence is death.

The wife continually insists that he tells her or she will assume that he was making fun of her. The conversation turns to a huge argument until the merchant gives up and decides to tell his wife everything he has been hiding (Haddawy, Husain, Mahdi and Heller-Roazen 12). The merchant knowing about his upcoming fate of death plans to write out his will. He goes to the stable where he encounters with a dog and a rooster. As the dog questions the rooster as to why he is not concerned about his master’s upcoming death, he responds by referring to the merchant as a fool (Haddawy, Husain, Mahdi and Heller-Roazen 13).

The rooster clarifies that the merchant does not know how to manage his own wife because if it were he, he would beat the wife until she lost her curiosity and desire to know the truth. The story is a clear example of why meddlesome behaviors should not be encouraged within individuals. It is important that a person keeps out from interfering with other people’s affairs because he might get involved in suffering consequences that are not his. For example, if the donkey decided to keep away from being involved with matters of the ox, he probably would have not suffered the inconvenience of being forced to work in place of the ox.

However, the donkey decided to interfere with the issue that did not need his involvement when he advised the ox to pretend that he was ill (Daniel 59). The donkey was probably not aware that the merchant could understand their language. This fact teaches on how risky life can get for those who like to assume everything. Perhaps if the donkey were cautious enough to see if anyone was listening to his or her conversation, he would not have to go through the trouble of laboring for the ox.  The story also depicts selfishness in the scene where the wife asks for information from her husband despite knowing that it would lead to her husband’s death.

It is assumed that since she is the wife, she is meant show that she loves and cares for the merchant. This means that the wife should have taken the time to understand her husband after being told he could die from spreading that information. However, instead of showing concern for her husband’s death, she persisted in knowing the truth despite knowing that it would kill her husband (Haddawy, Husain, Mahdi and Heller-Roazen 12). Besides, if the husband were going to die, the woman would also end up in a negative situation because she would lose a valuable factor in her life. Therefore, a way of showing love to others is by sometimes one putting their interests or concerns first before his needs.

Another instance where one could draw a valuable lesson on selfishness is in the scene where the dog and rooster are having a conversation. As the dog asks the rooster, why it is not showing any sympathy or concern for their master’s death, the rooster proudly responds that the merchant is fools for letting the fateful consequence happen to him. In this case, the rooster is selfish and ungrateful because the person whom it is badly remarking is the same person who takes responsibility to ensure that it is well fed and taken care of.

It is therefore important to show appreciation and concern for others who are troubled instead of laughing at them because they can happen to anyone. For example, if the rooster happened to be threatened by an external predator, it would come running to the merchant’s land in search for protection. Both of these stories including Master Ciappelletto’s confession and tale of the ox and the donkey have been used to reflect on the basic values that should be emulated within a society. For example, in Master Ciappelletto’s confession, values of honesty and respect are emphasized while kindness, love and understanding are the values taught in the tale of the fox and the donkey. As much as tales were mostly used in the past as compared to these modern times, they do play a significant role in instilling important values within individuals.

Works Cited:

Beaumont, Daniel E. Slave of Desire: Sex, Love, and Death in the 1001 Nights. Madison [NJ: FairleighDickinsonUniversity Press, 2002. Print.

Boccaccio Giovanni, Mark Musa, and Peter E. Bondanella. The Decameron: Selected Tales. New York: Courier Douver, 2000. Print.

Boccaccio, Giovanni and Payne, John. The Decameron of Giovanni Boccaccio. Europe: Kessinger Pub. Co, 2003. Print.

Haddawy, Husain, Muhsin Mahdi, and Daniel Heller-Roazen. The Arabian Nights. New York: W. W. Norton & Co, 2010. Print.

 

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Security Vs Privacy

A country at war with other countries as well as disguised enemies within its borders needs to be on the look out for any hints concerning them, meaning that several rules meant to tighten the security of its people cannot be an option, but a necessity. Considering our country is at war with other countries, it is the duty of our government to not only ensures security from external attacks, but also internal attacks from the enemies within our borders. Therefore, the government should be thinking of ways that ensure security for its citizens. However, the citizens must also cooperate with the government if the enemy is to be hunted down. Hence, government should ensure total surveillance of any possible hints where the enemy could be hiding.

At this age, technology has advanced to a limitless level, where an enemy can be within the country virtually and conduct activities from any location in the world without having to be within our borders physically, through access to our technology. Many companies and corporations are investing heavily in information technology and collection of data concerning security issues as well as surveillance meant to secure their most valued information. The government should be no exemption, and should ensure surveillance of the information that circulates within its borders to ensure security. The government is now requiring development of communication technology aimed at improving the surveillance within the country.

Welfare of the people in a country is the government’s most vital responsibility. Security is one of the welfares a government is concerned with, and personal matters of an individual should not hinder any efforts of maintaining security for the public, since they are outweighed greatly. Hence, the government should have access to private information as long as it is for the welfare of the people. Despite people having a right to privacy, the constitution does not state this explicitly, meaning that it cannot be an absolute right. Considering that, surveillance is meant to be watching of a suspect’s activities discretely, it can involve several areas, such as listening to phone calls, especially private, reading their emails, and tracking all their private communication. It can also involve going through their bank transactions to have a follow up on what their money does, and to where it circulates. All this is private information that could play a crucial role in nailing an enemy, and preventing a crime or an attack from an enemy, which is what is meant by security for the citizens. Therefore, people cannot say they have an absolute right to privacy when such information is vital for their security. More so, every right has its limits. For instance, a person’s right to free speech does not allow them to go shouting giving information that could jeopardize security, or even tarnish another person’s reputation. For the sake of security, privacy cannot be absolute considering this is where enemies could hide their information, and getting to it would require intrusion of privacy.

The good thing is that people of America are aware of this fact, and do allow the government to carryout its mandate of ensuring security, especially after the terrorist attack of September 11. The constitution does not explicitly state individual privacy, it does explicitly state what rights the government has over privacy matters (Browne, 2003). The two sides in this debate are those for a country with tight security, while the other side is for a total free country. However, there cannot be one absolute side, and both can have equilibrium. Nevertheless, giving total liberty to everybody would mean allowing all people to do what they want, and there would be no security. Hence, the government should have a right to invade privacy for the sake of the country’s security, which outweighs any individual privacy.  Moreover, no American wants a repeat of the September 11 event ever again. Hence, majority of the citizens are more than willing to cooperate with the government for the sake of their security whenever a terrorism issue is raised. In accordance to FISA and the Patriotic act, the records and traffic of telecommunication companies stand to be accessed by government officials even without warrants as long as it is for the national security purpose.

 

References

Browne, H. (2003). Does the Constitution Contain a Right to Privacy? Retrieved from http://www.harrybrowne.org/articles/PrivacyRight.htm

 

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Fourteenth Amendment, an Extension of the Preamble of Constitution

            The declaration of independence clearly stated that all men were created equal, had the unalienable rights of life, liberty and pursuit of happiness. In 1778, Thomas Jefferson helped in drafting and supporting legislature that banned slavery in Virginia. He was one of the five people that had been given the task of drafting the declaration. The northern states banned slavery in their states and this caused a huge division between the northern and southern states. Congress banned the importation of slaves in 1808. Some of the abolitionists continued to protest against slavery. The tension between the northern and southern states led to the civil war in 1861. In 1866, congress passed the civil rights act, which overruled the black codes in the southern states. The act provided that any person who was born in the United States be considered an American citizen. It also provided full and equal rights of all American citizens. The act also proffered that it was illegal to deny someone citizenship because of their color or because they had been slaves. These provisions were included in the first section of the 14^th amendment (Finkelman 234).

The first section of the fourteenth amendment states that, “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” It was passed after the end of the civil war in 1868, and it was meant to guarantee the rights of freed slaves and other immigrants. The amendment protected the freed slaves from the states. Since then, the amendment has continued to guarantee individual rights. The Supreme Court has made decisions regarding cases under the 14^th amendment that guarantees equal protection and applies due process. For instance, it used the amendment to rule against segregation in schools and argued that the separate but equal doctrine that was applied in schools violated the equal protection clause that was included in the amendment (McGuire 33). The amendment gave the blacks the right to own property and this property was protected by the law. The amendment has guaranteed blacks their rights and freedom. They can choose whichever career they want and they can work in any field. They can be employed in every sector and they have the right to the same education as the rest of the Americans. African Americans can testify in court against a person of any color without the fear of discrimination, threat or blackmail (Keynes 34).

The preamble states that, “We the people of the united states, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this constitution for the united states of America.” The main purpose of the preamble is to show that the constitution was made for the people of America. When writing the preamble, the main intent of the founding fathers was to show why the government existed, and why the people should support it. It is more likely that the phrase “We the people” included the people who were eligible to vote. At this eliminated women, African Americans and other immigrants, since they did not have voting rights at the time (Conserva 8). The preamble states that the people aim to make the country perfect. The preamble intends to provide a constitution that is fair to all the people. This was made possible by the establishment of the judicial branch. The constitution established the Supreme Court, which is the highest court in the land. There are also other lower courts such as the court of appeal and the district courts. It promises to make provisions in the constitution that will guarantee that the country maintains peace and protect the people. The preamble intends promises that the constitution will ensure freedom for the people and for the coming generations.

Although the preamble seems to include all the people by using the phrase “We the people”, it fails to give much details. The preamble does not explicitly state which people it intends to include in the constitution. There was a lot of inequality and discrimination in America during that time. Blacks, whether slaves or free were not considered equal. Although there were other minorities in the land, the black people were mostly taken as slaves and they often suffered the worst form of discrimination. One of the main contention in the preamble is the phrase “We the people”. Some people perceive that this means the citizens of United States. However, others contend that it referred to the founding fathers. This has limited the usage and scope of the preamble. This was rectified in the fourteenth amendment.

The 14^th amendment guarantees the protection of all the Americans regardless of their color or disposition. It did not matter whether the blacks were free or not. The thirteenth amendment had already made provisions that made slavery illegal. The fourteenth amendment clearly stipulated that all people were to be treated equally. The preamble also states that it intends to make a constitution that would protect all the people and guarantee their freedom. This did not happen however, as black people were often killed for no apparent reason, other than the fact that they were black. The fourteenth amendment made sure that every ones individual right and freedom was guaranteed and protected. The amendment guarantees the right of every person to own property and it guarantees the protection of this property. The fourteenth amendment brought more clarity to the preamble because it was detailed, and it gave specific information. The 14th Amendment is an extension of the preamble, considering its Achievements and significance in American history.

Works Cited:

Conserva, Henry. Understanding the Constitution. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2011

Finkelman, Paul. Encyclopedia of African American history, 1619-1895: from the colonial period to the age of Frederick Douglass, Volume 2. United Kingdom: OxfordUniversity Press, 2006

Independence Hall Association. Constitution of the United States. 2011. Web. 16 December 2011

Keynes, Edward. Liberty, Property, and Privacy: Toward a Jurisprudence of Substantive Due Process. PennState Press, 1996. print

Legal Information Institute. Preamble. CornellUniversityLawSchool. 2011. Web. !6 December 2011.

McGuire, Kent. Narrowing the Achievement gap in a (re)segregated Urban School District: Research, Practice, and Policy. Charlotte, NC: IAP, 2009. Print

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Police Discretion

            Police discretion refers to the decision made by individual police officers before taking a course of action. Sometimes officers are faced with immediate situations, and they have to make quick decisions without consulting other officers. In some cases, officers do not have to exercise discretion while working, and they have to do what the law stipulates. How the police exercise discretion depends on several factors, such as how they interpret the law and the seriousness of the crime. Most officers choose to disregard minor offences and they usually let the offender free. The attitude of the offender determines how the officers are going to handle him. They are also guided by their level of experience, background, values, personality and beliefs (Gaines & Miller, 2008). Officers usually have a lot of power, and they have to be accountable with how they use this power. They have to be responsible and accountable for their actions. Failure to do this results in abuse of power.

There are several positive uses of discretion. First discretion enables the police officers to maintain order quickly. In case of chaos, the officers do not have to rely on their supervisors to know what to do. Discretion enables the police to reduce the rate of crime in the society. The officers are motivated when allowed to exercise discretion when carrying out their duties. Police discretion is crucial as it benefits the other departments in the criminal justice system. It would not be beneficial for the police to arrest every person who violated the law. This would put a lot of burden for the judges and prosecutors. The jails are already overcrowded, and the police will not help matters by adding the number of offenders in the prison. Discretion enables the police to focus on crimes that are of a more serious nature.

In some cases, the police have sometimes abused their discretion. They have sometimes violated people’s constitutional rights, and have used excessive power on suspected offenders. This has cause outrage among different groups of people, especially those who have been victimized. Many people who oppose police discretion cite the fact that it leads to discriminatory practices. They argue that the police decide whom to arrest, and this can sometimes mean that they relax some laws. There is therefore, a possibility that the rates of crime would increase if the police were to abuse their discretionary powers. People from a certain group of people would be arrested more than others would if the police were to favor one group over the others. This would cause resentment among the people, who are largely helpless under such circumstances.

I do not think that a police department can exist if the use of discretion by police officers were to be banned. Many people oppose discretion out of fear that it will lead to discrimination and corruption. This has changed in modern times, as police officers have become more professional in their work than before. Moreover, the Supreme Court has taken a tougher stand over the years, when dealing with the police officers who abuse their power. They have ensured that the police officers respect the constitution by respecting people’s individual rights and freedom. Officers use their judgment when deciding whether to arrest or charge a suspect or offender. The law cannot guarantee the safety of all people in a society. The law does not provide regulations on what to do in every situation. The officers feel respected in the society when they are allowed to use their discretion. In many situations, the officers do not abuse their power and the fact that they are able to use discretion shows that people have confidence in them. A police department that relies entirely on the law and disregards the ability of the officers to use discretion becomes bureaucratic and rigid. The use of discretion increases flexibility (Palmiotto & Unnithan, 2010).

Different levels in the police department exercise discretion since they have to make decisions concerning policies and practices. Different police departments use different styles of policing. They have different roles and responsibilities, and they use discretion differently. Some departments use watchman-style and are more concerned with serious crimes and in maintaining public order. They use discretion when they are dealing with minor crimes and misdemeanors. They choose to disregard minor violations, and they will often dismiss the offenders with a warning. Departments, which choose to use legalistic styles, do not use discretion at all. They discourage discretion and they cite it as a way of encouraging corruption in the department. They choose to apply the same standards in all situations. They apply the law and they are highly centralized and bureaucratic. They arrest all who have committed any violation regardless of their status or the type and seriousness of the crime committed. Some departments use the service style, which is more relaxed in nature. They provide services to the people, and they rarely use the criminal justice system. They often use discretion, and they rarely arrest people. They are more concerned with protecting the people and ensuring safety and security. Departments can choose to use any of the styles. Most departments combine all the styles.

The patrol division probably has the greatest discretion powers. This is because they are usually not supervised in the course of their duties. They spend more time with ordinary citizens than they do in the office. Patrol officers meet all sorts of people in the course of their work, some of who can be dangerous. They are knowledgeable in criminal behavior, and they know how to study people. They spend much of their time assisting people, and most of them are considered trustworthy and honest. They have to exercise discretionary powers so that they can perform their work properly (Gaines & Miller, 2008). The patrol officers use discretion when deciding whom they will assist in case such a situation arise (Palmiotto & Unnithan, 2010). They have to decide how they are going to use their time. Patrol officers encounter many situations. Some of them choose to avoid trouble, while others look for any instance of trouble. The patrol officers use discretion when deciding their area of concentration. Some choose to look for drug violators, while others are more concerned about preventing burglary. Some of the officers face dangerous situations, and they have to decide the amount of force they are going to use.      Detectives investigate crime, and they have to exercise discretion when deciding the extent to which they are going to investigate a particular crime. They have to decide which evidence they are going to use, and the suspects they are going to pursue. Detectives decide the investigative methods that are best suitable for solving the case. They exercise discretion when handling suspected offenders (Cordner & Scarborough, 2010). Detectives spend a considerable amount of time before solving crimes. They sometimes spend more time with the suspects, and they have time to follow what the law stipulates. In most cases, they have to check with their supervisors before making decisions. This is unlike the patrol officers who spend much time on the streets. The patrol officers face the situation as it happens and they do not have enough time before taking a course of action. They do not have time to check what the law requires, and they do not have to check with their supervisors before taking any action.

Police discretion is necessary in any society. It can benefit the society, especially if that society maintains and upholds the people’s individual rights. Professionalism within the police force has ensured that the police do not abuse their discretionary power. Some departments use more discretionary power than others do. They do not rely heavily on the criminal justice system, and they often choose to disregard minor violations and misdemeanors. When the police use discretion, it means that people have confidence in them. The ability of the police to exercise their discretionary powers boosts their morale, and they are motivated to work.

References:

Cordner, W. G., & Scarborough, E. K. (2010). Police administration. United Kingdom: Elsevier

Gaines, K. L., & Miller, L. R. (2008). Criminal justice in action. New York, NY: Cengage Learning

Palmiotto, J. M., & Unnithan, P. N. (2010). Policing and society: A global approach. New York, NY: Cengage Learning

 

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