Category: Samples

ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

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7^th, February 2013

 

SECTION ONE

Organizational change is crucial to all organizations, especially during this contemporary period that is influenced by globalization. Most organizations will want to optimize their performance through initiating different types of organizational changes. Normally, an organizational change will occur as a response to specific change in aspects of the organizational culture. Organizational change may also occur as a form of response to a crisis within the organization. Most importantly, a manager who is radical or progressive initiates this process. In most cases, companies will experience organizational change after undergoing a shift in executive powers. When organizational change happens, it does not result in self-adjustment, but requires appropriate management in order to be under control.

The business world today is competitive and therefore, companies need to keep adjusting in order to compete favourably in the market. In the fast-moving business environment, companies should embrace organizational change in order to satisfy the standards in the market. Organizations might undergo organizational changes due to a number of reasons. First, if new technology is introduced in a company, there will probably be some changes. Although this might be disruptive to employees, new technology tends to increase the productivity of companies (Burke, 2010).

Additionally, companies choose to initiate organizational change as a way of satisfying their customers’ needs. Customer needs today keep changing, even as technology changes. Therefore, a company might be forced to develop new types of products and services, in order to meet its customers’ changing taste. On the other hand, the aspect of economy might lead to both positive and negative organizational change in a company. If the economy is robust, there will be an increased demand for goods and services, and this could force a company to expand. In this case, organizational change occurs in the form of company expansion. On the other hand, if the economy is weak, this might force the company to adjust by cutting down on employee salary, among other measures that might threaten employees’ jobs.

Organizational change in an organization might also happen when employees are introduced to new skills and knowledge through training. All this is for the purpose of ensuring that the company makes good use of the growth opportunities in the market. Training for employees might be conducted using different ways, to ensure that their newly acquired skills enhance growth of the company (Burke, 2010).

There are different types of organizational changes a company might be involved in. These vary depending on the objectives of the company, and the outcomes they anticipate from the organizational change. Different scholars of economics have developed a variety of frameworks, through which an organizational change in a company can be viewed. Grundy (1993) developed a framework of categorization of organizational change. In this framework, there is the smooth incremental organizational change, there is the bumpy incremental, and the discontinuous organizational change (Grundy, 1993).

In the smooth incremental change, Grundy considered this to be any type of organizational change, whereby the changes occur in an evolutionary manner, slowly, and systematically. Such changes in an organization are therefore easy to predict. On the other hand, the bumpy incremental changes are characterized by periods of quiet change, which are interrupted abruptly by an increase in the rate of change because of various factors in the organization. An example of this is reorganizations. Finally, the discontinuous organizational change is one that is faced with much turbulence. When this happens, normally, the course of change will take a divergent breakthrough at various points. Therefore, as opposed to the smooth incremental change, the discontinuous change is highly unstable; therefore, it is hard to predict this kind of organizational change (Grundy, 1993).

SECTION TWO

            Restructuring or reorganization of companies occurs when a company decides to redesign one or more of its elements. This process could be adopted because of different reasons. For instance, a company might want to increase its profitability in the market. A company might also wish to compete more favourably in the market or want to undertake a new direction in its business processes.

A company could reach a point where its original structure has outlived its usefulness, and no longer serves the needs in the new business environment. Therefore, in order to increase effectiveness of the company’s management, some departments in the company could be spinned off into subsidiaries. Apart from increasing the effectiveness of management practice, this move could also take advantage of tax breaks, thus allowing the company to add more revenue to its process of production. Reorganization is a positive step in an organization, as it aims at achieving optimum growth of the company (Burke, 2010).

A company might be compelled to undergo restructuring or reorganization when it is faced with bankruptcy, due to buy-outs, or because of corporate acquisitions. The company manager is the one in charge of the restructuring process, and therefore, controls the process. Some companies hire new managers to oversee this process. During restructuring, therefore, the manager in charge of the process will be faced with different responsibilities, including, restructuring of debt, implementing of new technology, or strengthening a particular area in the company. In some companies, restructuring might lead to layoffs and downsizing in the company. This is detrimental to the affected employees, but the company is compelled to do this as a cost reduction strategy. Nonetheless, whatever way a company uses to restructure itself must result in positive outcomes, as the process of restructuring is meant to increase company profitability.

There are various strategies, which organizations use in the restructuring process. First, a company might decide to add more positions to its current position. This is always with the aim of increasing efficiency in the company. Such a case happens when the company is faced with many tasks to execute, yet the workmanship is insufficient. On the contrast, a company might perform restructuring by reducing or eliminating some of its existing positions. In this case, the company might be trying to cut on costs. On the other hand, this happens when the company has many positions, but fewer tasks, meaning most employees in the position do not handle the minimum required workload (Burke, 2010).

Additionally, a company may choose to restructure by changing work assignments significantly. This might require the employees in the company to undergo significant training to acquire new skills or update their skills in order to perform the new tasks they are presented with. In the case of mergers, the newly formed company will have to undergo intensified restructuring in order to harmonize operations (Burke, 2010).

Conclusively, the processes of organizational change and reorganization or restructuring are important to companies. The business environment today is quite unpredictable, competitive, and prone to face many changes. Therefore, companies need to undergo restructuring and organizational change to adapt to changes in the business environment. For both processes, a company might choose to utilize different strategies in approaching the process depending on its specialties. However, the management in charge of the processes must ensure that these present positive outcomes for the company, such as stable structures and more financial flexibility.

References

Burke, W. (2010). Organization Change: Theory and Practice. New York: SAGE.

Grundy, T. (1993). Implementing Strategic Change: A Practical Guide for Business. New York:

Kogan Page.

 

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INTAKE INTERVIEW ANALYSIS

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6^th, February 2013

 

 

Utopia Home Care provides home care services to clients, who could be individuals, couples, or families. This agency serves those clients in Twin cities metro area and the surrounding areas.  Their services are tailored to suit personal needs, as these are provided depending on the demands of clients. Utopia Home Care believes in developing long-lasting relationships with clients, apart from service provision. The employees in this home care agency include nurses, homemakers, social workers, housekeepers, among other care workers to provide care services to clients. Additionally, Utopia Home Care has extended-range resources because of its multiple locations. This has three metropolitan offices in New York, which serve Brooklyn. There are 24 offices in six different states, including North and South Carolina, Florida, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. Therefore, this is appropriate for some clients to whom multiple locations suit their needs (Home Care Utopia, 2012).

An intake or admission interview is advantageous to this home care facility in different ways. First, it helps in determining circumstances surrounding the potential client, before they are admitted to the home care facility. This is also advantageous as it helps to determine whether the needs of the client can be met by the home care facility or not. In case the client qualifies for the home care services, they are admitted. On the other hand, if they do not qualify for the services, they will be referred to an appropriate health care agency, which fits their needs (Hersen, 2011).

A counselling or clinical interview in this home care facility can be conducted in different situations. First, this can be used to evaluate potential employees, in order to reveal their personality or their current circumstances. This also aims at gathering information about the potential employee’s past, including their strengths and weaknesses. This kind of interview is also conducted for clients, in order to gather information about their personality, and other issues relating to their medical past. This interview method can be a good choice for this home care agency, as the staff will use the information revealed about the client in the interview, during their provision of home care services. For instance, if the client has a medical condition, nurses will be able to handle that, or if they have a personality disorder, the staff will know how to handle the client. Therefore, the information provided by clients during the interview helps in provision of better home care services, which suit the client’s condition. Interviewing potential employees helps to choose the ones that are most fit to work in the home care facility. Since this type of interview reveals the personality of the interviewee, individuals with caring and compassionate personality will be selected, as these can work best in a home care agency (Hersen, 2011).

Different ethical issues might arise in course of the interview. These are issues related to privacy and confidentiality, and informed consent. An interviewer might probe too much into the private life of an interviewee. The interviewer can avoid this by sticking only to the relevant part of the interview. During report writing, an interviewer might use direct quotes, and this jeopardises the confidentiality of the interviewee. Therefore, an interviewer must write reports in ways that will maintain confidentiality. For informed consent, an interviewer should let the interviewee know the rules of privacy and confidentiality in the interview process. For clients, the interviewer must explain processes of home care services offered by the centre, in order for them to make independent choices, depending on their preferences. With regard to confidentiality, a psychologist may be forced to report to a third in case a client is in danger. This calls for a disclosure of some of the client’s confidential information provided during the interview. This creates an ethical dilemma. However, a psychologist in this situation might consult the APA code of conduct, or seek advice from the authorities, on what can be done to avoid violating the set standards (Sommers-Flanagan, J. & Sommers-Flanagan, 2012).

 

References

Home Care Utopia. (2012). Retrieved 7 February 2013 http://homecareutopia.com/

Hersen, M. (2011). Clinician’s Handbook of Adult Behavioral Assessment. New Jersey: Gulf

Professional Publishing.

Sommers-Flanagan, J. & Sommers-Flanagan, R. (2012). Clinical Interviewing: 2012-2013

Update, 4th Edition: 2012-2013 Update. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

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1．           Arguments for and against progressive income taxes

Progressive income tax system applies to income of different people at different rates. Those earning high income are subjected to higher tax rates than those earning lower income. This is advantageous as it helps reduce the gap between high-income earners and low-income earners. This system is also fairer than a tax system where everyone pays equal tax rates. Therefore, if one earns more, they are able to give more to the government, and vice versa. However, this system is disadvantageous, as in some way, it punishes hard work. The more one works hard, the more they are taxed, and this discourages hard work. This system also seems unfair, as it imposes different tax rates on people in the same society. The successful high-income earners in society might feel prejudiced.

2．           Causes of monopolies

Monopoly is mainly caused by the presence of many barriers in the market, which prevent other business players from gaining entrance into the market. Additionally, when there is no other substitute for specific products in the market, monopoly is likely to occur. In some countries, the government may also give powers to specific companies to monopolize the market legally. Finally, the ownership of patents and copyright protection results in monopoly power for some businesses.

3．           Incentives for companies to compete with each other or collude with each other

In order to increase competition, governments should provide incentives such as subsidies to companies. In addition, small companies should be exempted from meeting the standards of the bigger companies, as these lack the facilities and financial resources to meet the high standards. Breaking down bids and making them smaller is advantageous to smaller firms, as these are comfortable with smaller contracts. If these among others are observed, more new companies will be attracted into the market.

4．           How regulations affect market outcomes, and why these effects may be desirable or undesirable

Regulation of markets is important for consumers. This involves laid down standards by the regulatory body to ensure an acceptable business practice in the supply of goods and services. This helps in price control, and controlling natural monopolies, especially in the electricity supply industries and the telecommunications sector. This benefits individual companies too, as regulation encourages fair competition in companies, while protecting the consumers.

5．           Differences between capture theory and public-interest theory

The idea of capture was developed by George Stigler and argues that, if industries capture their regulatory agencies, they can benefit from regulation. They can do this by making the regulatory agencies depend on their technology and political influence. On the other hand, public-interest theory applies in market failures, when markets fail to regulate themselves, forcing the government to step in because of

6．           The 10 planks of the Communist Manifesto

Karl Marx developed these as steps necessary to destroy a free enterprise society, and to replace it with government power that is omnipotent, in order to allow for a communist socialist state. These were meant to test whether a state is communist or not. If they are all in effect, it means the country is practicing communism unknowingly or knowingly. These deny individuals in the state their freedom, thus portraying communism as disastrous to a country and its people.

7．           A summary of key ideological positions in economic thought from mercantilism to the present. Know the general time-line and some of the key players.

There are different past thinkers in economics, who helped advance the economic ideology and thought. Aristotle, a Greek writer questioned the aspect of wealth acquisition during his time. Thomas Aquinas during the medieval time, argued about product prices. In the 17^th Century, Adam Smith is considered the father of modern economics, as per the arguments he made in his book, Treaties, the Wealth of Nations.

David Ricardo among other classical economists built on Adam’s thought, to come up with a more rigid argument. Karl Marx on the other hand, addressed the capitalistic system in society. From 1870s, neoclassical economists addressed their arguments in economics basing on mathematical and scientific concepts. In the early 20^th century, John Keynes advanced his argument, popularly known as the Keynesian policies, which faltered in the 1970s. This paved way for the new classical school, including Robert Lucas and Prescott Edward. The 21^st century economists such as Amartya Sen have challenged contemporary economic policies, among other economic issues affecting society today (Medema and Samuels 15-20).

 

Works Cited

Medema, Steven and Samuels, Warren. The History of Economic Thought. New York:

Routledge, 2012.

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Effects of Mass Media on Young Generation –A Textual Analysis

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4^th, February 2013

 

The author of this article,” Effects of Mass Media on Young Generation” explains how the media today influences young people and shapes their world views, behaviors ,and values. He however, holds the assumption that the media is to blame for all the negative behavior of children and youth in society. Although the article emphasizes the negative influence of the media on the young generation, the author also identifies the little positive influence the media has on young people today. The author therefore, portrays the media as being “bittersweet,” as it is useful in society, but again misleading. Young people can therefore, be empowered, or damaged by the media (“Article base” 2008).

This article has a wide audience, including the young people, parents, teachers, the media personalities, media companies, among others. These can learn a few lessons from this article, as the role of media in society continues to raise concerns among different people today. The main purpose of the author in writing this article was to let the readers learn about the good and bad faces of the media in society. If the reader is a parent, they will learn how to regulate the exposure time of their children to the media, and probably filter the types of media, so that their children are only exposed to positive media.

The author has organized the article in a specific way to ensure there is flow of thought. He begins by posing a question to the readers, about what exactly is the cause of negative behaviors among the youth today. He then goes ahead to identify the approaches the media uses to attract young people to it, in order to gain viewership. The author afterwards, explains the negativities of the media in society, and finally discusses the positive side of the media. Although he does not use any sources in the article, the author still manages to make the article appear authentic. He does so by use of examples from real-life scenarios, to explain the influence of the media on society today. For instance, the author talks about how McDonalds uses cartoon characters in the advertisement of its hamburgers. By using real life situations in the media today, most of the readers of the article will identify with these, and understand the author’s objective quite easily. Use of these examples, also makes the reader to stop and think about other instances they are aware of in the media, which are probably a trap to attract more youth to the media programs. Generally, by using this technique, the author appeals to the readers to treat the media with a lot of caution (“Article base” 2008).

In order to support the claims made in this article about the influence of the media on the youth, the author uses the relationship between the manifest youth behaviors and specific media programs, to show that there is a linkage between the two, and that one affects the other. In this case, the media influences youth behavior. For instance, the author points out to the scenes of violence and murder in some television programs and films. Theses, according to the author, have influenced children and youth in a negative way, that has had detrimental effects in society today. The author assumes that the cases of shootings in schools by students in the United States, and instances in Britain, where older children kill innocent toddlers, are all an influence of the media. The article holds that, the media today has made death to be a simple issue, not as in the past, when death was a taboo topic. The common murder scenes in media programs have therefore, contributed to cases of killings by the youth in society, according to the author. This is a convincing language, which the author uses to make the reader understand his concerns and point of view about the media (“Article base” 2008).

The author claims that the media today targets the young people in society, as these make the majority of the population. He supports this assumption by pointing out that different companies spend a lot of money in refining their advertisements, and making them appear more appealing to the youth, who are the main targets. These advertisements, according to the author, are streamlined to fit into the contemporary culture of the youth, as they are created bearing elements of youth culture in them. The use of this example and proof is meant by the author to convince the reader that it is a fact that the media targets the youth in society, thus, making them ape much of what they see in the media, whether good or bad.

Although the article does well in convincing and appealing to the reader about the influence of the media to the youth, the author exhibits quite a number of biases in this article. From the article, a reader gets the idea that the media is solely responsible for all the bad incidences and negative behaviors portrayed by the youth today. The author has made this clear and obvious in the article, when he states that, “If a child bludgeons another child to death with a wrench or shoots a classmate, it is the violent TV programs that they watch which are to blame, not the parents or the supervisors. . .” (“Article base” 2008).To support this assumption, the author points out to the death and violence scenes in the media, especially in the cartoon programs, where characters are killed but later on are seen alive. In this case, the children have a wrong conception of death and think if they kill someone; the person cannot die forever, as seen in the cartoon programs. This author is biased in this area of his discussion, as he lays too much blame on the media. The parents, teachers, friends, and other members of the society might also influence the youth in a positive or negative way. Additionally, parents and teachers have the role of controlling the exposure of the youth to the media. This could be either through educating them on the benefits and harms of the media, or through helping them to choose only positive media, which they can learn from.

The author knows well that this article might face a number of objections from different readers. The main concern of the article is about the influence of the media on the youth. However, although the author explains and gives proof that the media has negative effects on the youth, he is keen to note that such claims do not go down well with the media houses. These have refuted claims that they are the cause of the youth’s negative behavior in society. Therefore, either the author seems to expect objection to this article, through the same media executives, or individuals affiliated to the media in different ways. However, the author leaves a challenge to the people who would object to this article, by asking why the media keeps spending millions in adverts, which are meant to attract the youth. If they were not interested in the youth, they would not be looking for ways of enticing them into their viewership. The author uses this technique to portray the level of deception in the media (“Article base” 2008).

To balance the discussion in the article, the author identifies the positive side of the media. The main positive thing the author identifies in the media is the creation of awareness among youth on topics that the society does not address in open. For instance, he gives an example of the issues surrounding the quota system, which the media had addressed publicly in the recent times. The media revealed all the injustices that were involved in the system, thus, bringing this information that would have never been known, to the public. The author also gives an example of the sex education debate. The media played a role in this decision by highlighting different facts of whether sex education should be taught in schools or not. Somehow, this got the public’s attention, thus increasing their awareness of the matter.

The author remains biased in his discussion about the positive effects of the media in society through creation of self-awareness among the people in society. The media has been responsible for revealing a lot of information, which could have never caught the attention of the public. The media has also addressed sensitive issues, such as sexuality. The author feels that sometimes the media goes overboard while addressing sensitive issues in society. This makes the author think, is wrong. From his argument, a reader might realize that the author takes his stance as a conservative Indian, who still upholds the values and standards of the indigenous Indian culture. He argues that his Indian values remain and that it is not right for the wave of westernization to take over the cultures of different regions, including India. To him therefore, the exposition of the overly sensitive issues in society by the media is an element of westernization, which he thinks is slowly taking root in other countries as well. He thinks that children should not be exposed to certain sensitive issues at an early age, as this is inappropriate (“Article base” 2008).

The author, in this article is seen to be imposing his Indian beliefs and standards on the readers. By speaking indifferently against westernization, he tries to make readers shun westernization and embrace their own original cultures. This is a disregard for cultural relativity, as the author still believes that his Indian culture, where taboo topics might be unacceptable, is far much better than westernization, which allows taboo topics in the media. Every culture is suitable for the people who practice it, therefore, no culture is better than the other. This is what the author fails to pay attention to. India is different from the western culture, basing on different factors, including their history. Therefore, if western countries discuss taboo topics publicly, it means they have adapted to that, maybe encourage that, and view it as beneficial to the young children, who will grow up as knowledgeable individuals.

In conclusion, I feel the author has brought out well the theme of this article, by addressing both the negative and positive influences of the mass media on the young generation today. While it is true that the media is to blame for the moral decadence of the youth in society today, it cannot bear the whole blame, as other factors, apart from the media, also contribute to moral decadence in society. The author has demonized mass media, and brought it out as something to be avoided at all cost, yet this is not the case. In addressing the positive side of the media, the author identifies only one benefit, and does not mention other many positive elements of the media. He still identifies flaws in the one positive element he had identified, and uses it to further criticize the media, including westernization. Nonetheless, this article, especially the criticism of the author toward the media, is based on the author’s preconceived views and values about westernization. He approaches his criticism from his Indian point of view, and tries to justify Indian values, while criticizing westernization, which is the root of mass media. Nonetheless, this article is enlightening and useful to especially parents, who learn from this that they should ensure that their children are exposed to positive media only, as it is true that there is danger in the media, especially among the young people, who are not wise enough to choose positive media, and disregard the negative media.

 

References

“Article base.” (2008). Effects of Mass Media on Young Generation. Retrieved 4 February 2013

http://www.articlesbase.com/article-marketing-articles/effects-of-mass-media-on-young-generation-562352.html

 

 

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EFFECTIVENESS OF THE GERMANY U-BOAT CAMPAIGN

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6^th, February, 2013

 

 

 

The “Unterseeboot,” which is commonly known as the U-Boat, was a type of submarine, which Germany utilized during the First World War, between the years 1914-1918. This submarine was used successfully throughout the First World War period to engage Germany’s enemies. However, this submarine is popular for its devastating effects as a commercial raider. One of the factors that contributed to the high capability of this submarine to engage in the war successfully was the kind of technology involved. However, as technology became more advanced, it also hindered the abilities of this submarine, as countries developed more sophisticated tools of war. The U-Boats were unique and diverse, and belonged to different categories. These played the major role for Germany in the First World War. Their capabilities lasted up to the beginning of the Second World War. This was after Germany’s enemies developed their own different ways of combating the U-Boats (Sondhaus 2011). This paper focuses on the roles the U-Boat campaign played in the First World War, its effectiveness, and ultimate failure.

During the First World War, the submarine was seen as the main weapon in the war. The Germany U-Boat was the greatest challenge to the British maritime security during this war. In September 1914, a U-Boat sank three old British cruisers. In the month of October, the same year, a U-Boat again sank a state-of-the-art battleship. Subsequently, more British and French warships were sunk by the U-Boats in the following years. In May 1915, the HMS Triumph was equally sunk, among others. In December of the same year, U-Boat 38 facilitated the sinking of the P&O passenger liner SS Persia. While Britain and France used warships, Germany’s U-Boat campaign was a more effective strategy in the war (Williamson 2013).

During the First World War, Germany and Britain used naval blockades to ensure that no ship from one country got access to the other country. Initially, the British succeeded at this, as their surface fleet could intercept Germany-bound ships. This case compelled Germany to utilise the U-Boats.  In 1915, Germany adopted an unrestricted submarine warfare strategy. Since Britain relied on foodstuffs and weapons from Canada and America, which were transported across the Atlantic Ocean, Germany thought that this strategy could make British surrender from the war. Therefore, Germany was involved in the indiscriminate sinking of all ships, even those belonging to neutral states. By use of the U-Boat, Germany succeeded in sinking numerous ships, risking the fact that it could add more enemies, apart from Britain and France (Herwig 1998).

In May 1015, the U-Boat U-20, led to the sinking of the passenger liner Lusitania, leading to many deaths. Of the passengers on board, were 128 Americans, and 1,170 more passengers. This outraged America, which was neutral in the war during this period. THE U-Boats conducted further sinking of ships, and this resulted in a poor relationship between Germany and America. However, Germany decided to end the unrestrictive strategy in September 1915. This had already cause havoc to the affected countries, as the U-Boat campaign was effective in this. The U-Boat campaign of Germany managed to sink 750,000 tons of enemy’s shipping. However, this did not devastate the economy of Britain (Sheffield 2011).

When Germany returned their unrestricted war strategy in September 1916, more havoc was done by the U-Boats. During this period, Germany invested in more manufacturing of U-Boats at a high speed. This led the U-Boat campaign to accomplish another sinking of 250,000 tons within the duration of a few weeks only. This led to the development of more tension between Germany and its rivals. Germany did not care if America, which was neutral, would be compelled to join the war (Sheffield 2011).

In 1916, France and Britain defeated the Germany army. This led to Germany to conduct a few changes in its army, including the appointment of new generals. They also invested more in the U-Boats, which was their hope in the war. Germany launched an all-out submarine defensive, while disregarding the risks involved. This was meant to make Britain surrender, and conceit defeat in the war. The U-Boat campaign in this period went well for Germany, as the U-Boats managed to sink approximately 400,000 tons of enemy shipping each month. In early 1917, Germany improved on their former models of the U-Boats, making them more effective than the former models. The new models of U-Boats resulted in the sinking of 465,000 tons in the month of February, approximately 510,000 tons in the month of March, and close to 400,000 tons within the first two weeks of the month of April, and the year 1917. This was devastating to the enemies of Germany, and it was feared that if the trend would continue, Germany would experience a period of hunger (Terraine 2010).

The havoc that U-Boats wrecked on Germany and other affected countries compelled the USA to join the war in April 1917. In order to get back at Germany, Britain invested in high technology in developing war tools that would counter the Germany U-Boats. They made use of the newly emerged anti-submarine techniques, among others to develop the Q-Ship, which had the capability to attack surfaced U-Boats. This, coupled with use of aircraft, highly reduced the effectiveness of the U-Boat campaign. This counteraction by Britain was necessary, as it held end war in the Atlantic. However, the U-Boats still managed to sink 316,000 more tons of shipping. The Germans at this point did not win the war, and the USA had joined the war (Sheffield 2011).

British navy continued to launch attacks on the U-Boats, and in early October 1918, Germany was forced to abandon their bases due to multiple attacks from Britain. Germany was later defeated in November 1918, and lost it to Britain. Germany was forced to give 176 U-Boats to the Royal Navy as spoils for war. Were it not for the use of technology to develop anti-submarine war tools, the U-Boat campaign would have remained effective, and seen Germany take over victory. However, the U-Boat had remained a threat, even toward the end of the war (Williamson 2013).

Conclusively, the U-Boat campaign was the instrumental in the First World War. It was responsible for the multiple victories Germany had, while sinking thousands of tons of Britain’s shipping. The use of U-Boats was a unique strategy Germany utilized, which other rivals did not have. The fact that this relied on new technology to develop, made the U-Boat to be effective in sinking the enemy’s ships.

 

Works Cited

Herwig, H 1998, “Total Rhetoric, Limited War: Germany’s U-boat campaign 1917-1919,”

Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, I: 1 (1998), Viewed 6 February 2013 <http://www.jmss.org/jmss/index.php/jmss/article/view/19/18>

Sheffield, G 2011, “The First Battle of the Atlantic,” BBC History, Viewed 6 February 2013

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/battle_atlantic_ww1_01.shtml>

Sondhaus, L 2011, World War I: The Global Revolution, Cambridge University Press, London.

Terraine, J 2010, Business in great waters: the U-boat wars, 1916-1945, Casemate Pub & Book

Dist Llc, London.

Williamson, G 2013, U-Boat Crews 1914-45, Osprey Publishing, New York.

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Nursing Informatics Theory

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4^th, February 2013

 

All nurses in the field of nursing must have a framework that reflects their practice in nursing. These must first, be familiar with the conceptual structure of the nursing. Therefore, knowing the different theories in nursing is crucial for all nurses, as this theoretical knowledge will be applied in their practice, and guide their nursing process. Nursing informatics is applied to all areas of nursing practice, including research, education, clinical practice, and administration. Nursing informatics is a science, which also exhibits the characteristics of a system. By referring to nursing informatics as a system, it means that just like a system, it functions to bring order and involves a coordination of different processes and working elements. On the other hand, by referring to nursing informatics as a science, it means that, like a science, it involves knowledge acquisition, especially the quantitative knowledge. For instance, the body functions well when all the other body organs are in good shape. This is the same way nursing informatics functions. Additionally, systems do use the knowledge of science to measure things such as flow of blood, among others in order to determine the wellness of the body. This is the same case in nursing informatics, as it makes use of both data of scientific nature, as well as systems. For nursing informatics to be effective, the individuals involved must make use of both practical knowledge and the theoretical knowledge in this discipline (Baker, 2012).

In nursing informatics, there are different theories, which help to frame and inform this discipline. These include the general systems theory, change theory, cybernetics theory, and the cognitive theory (Baker, 2012). All these theories support nursing informatics in different ways, and the nursing practitioners can combine the knowledge they acquire from these theories, with that they obtain from their nursing practice, to enhance their performance. This essay will address the general systems theory, and explain how this is relevant and applicable in the discipline of nursing.

The general systems theory is characterized by different parts that continuously interact with each other, and these are confined within some form of a boundary. In this theory, the human body is considered the system. This houses the different body organs of humans. These body organs in the body form the elements of the system. Overall, the general systems theory is based on the description of how different parts function together as part of one system. Therefore, apart from nursing, this theory can as well be applied in other disciplines such as sociology, and chemistry, among others. In nursing, this theory is used to explain the concepts of the human body and human health. There is a relationship between theory and practice in nursing, therefore, the general systems theory is used to influence the nursing practice (Baker, 2012).

The general systems theory was initially proposed and developed by a biologist, Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1972) in the 1950’s. This theory has been applied in different disciplines, since it is a multidisciplinary theory. In nursing, the general systems theory has been used to develop more nursing theories; therefore, it has acted as a foundation upon which more nursing theories are developed. In addition, this theory has been instrumental in the conducting of nursing research. In order to understand and apply the general systems theory, one must have knowledge of systems, their characteristics, and how they function. In a system, its various components have their specific functions, and they interact with the other components within the system. Additionally, it is assumed that systems function in a similar manner.

Dorothea Orem (1914-2007) is one of the past nursing theorists, who advanced on Ludwig von Bertalanffy’s general systems theory, to develop a general systems theory that is specific to nursing. Orem was involved in the nursing career and served as a practicing nurse, a nurse educator, a nurse consultant, and an administrator. She built her philosophy on the fact that human beings desire for self-care for continued sustenance of their health and life. She also thought that the goal of nursing is overcoming human limitations. Additionally, her worldview held that human beings comprise the psychological, physical, and social nature, which are not stable, but change over time. Dorothea also argued that human beings and their environment are in a constant interaction in the context of a self-care system. Therefore, a change in the system of a human being and a subsequent change in the environment will result in changes in the self-care system. Therefore, according to Orem, human beings and the environment are one integrated system (Hartweg, 1991).

In her theory, Orem identified some important aspects in the self-care system, which influences it differently. These are the environment, person, and health. Health is considered not only in the context of bodily wellness, but also in the progress, a person makes each day in their functioning. People are seen as existing in their environment, and are always part of it. In addition, different environmental features, including social, physical, biological, and chemical environmental elements, affect the health and well-being of an individual. In this theory, a person is the recipient of nursing care, and functions socially, biologically, and symbolically. This being is also capable of learning and development. Most importantly, they can be taught and learn how to meet their self-care needs. This theory treats people as special from other living organisms, because of their special capabilities, which other living organisms lack (Basavanthappa, 2007).

The nursing systems theory by Orem is part of her general theory of nursing, which also consists of self-care theory and self-care deficit theory, which are all applied in nursing. Self-care comprises various activities, which an independent person performs to maintain their personal well-being. On the other hand, self-care deficit theory explains the circumstances under which nursing is needed, and the various ways through which patients can be given assistance through nursing. This is normally the case when the self-care agency fails to meet their self-care needs. This compels nurses to come in and help the patient meet their self-care needs through different ways (Basavanthappa, 2007).

In the theory of nursing systems, Orem suggested that this referred to the variety of steps or procedures, which nurses often take in the process of meeting the self-care needs of their patients. These procedures vary from patient to patient, depending on their individual self-care needs. This theory therefore, dwells on the roles of both the patient and the nurse, as well as the general responsibilities of the nursing process. Additionally, this theory describes the nature of relationship between the nurse and the patient, as well as the different actions needed in order for the needs of the patient to be met. She divided this into three main nursing systems, including wholly compensatory, partly compensatory, and supportive-educative (Hartweg, 1991).

In the wholly compensatory system, the patient’s self-care is limited and sometimes impossible. Therefore, the patient has to rely on other parties for his or her survival and well-being. In the partly compensatory system, a patient has the capability to meet some of their self-care needs, but not all of them. The patients in this system will therefore, require a considerable assistance from the nurses. In the supportive-educative system, a patient is capable of meeting their self-care needs, but only requires support from the nurse in the form of knowledge acquisition, decision-making, and behavior control. The nurse in this case plays the role of a consultant (Hartweg, 1991).

Orem’s theory has been widely applied in nursing because of its relevance in the discipline. Today, health care has become a complex system. There are multiple providers of health care, there is a wide range of new technology in health care today, competition has become high, and the growing search for information keeps increasing. Since nursing is considered a complex system, it therefore, comprises different entities, as observed. These include people, physical objects, as well as processes. This theory is therefore, applicable in the field of nursing today, since the nursing system today keeps becoming more complex, just like the case in Orem’s theory. Therefore, nurses can borrow from the knowledge in Orem’s theory of how to practice nursing in a complex nursing system (Clancy, Effken, & Pesut, 2008).

Orem’s theory is the foundation of the nursing practice in different settings. This theory can be applied in the process of assessment of the nursing process. In addition, this theory emphasizes nursing care as the responsibility of the nurse, which must not be forfeited. Therefore, this encourages nurses in the profession to be patient-oriented, and not task oriented. In nursing informatics where technology is highly utilized, Orem’s theory emphasizes the importance of patient-nurse interactions, and therefore, the technology must not take the place of the nurse, as the physical presence and support of patients by the nurse is a factor that contributes to their recovery. However, Orem recommends the use of technology to help nurses have their patients recover quickly. Since in this theory, Orem defines nursing process as a system, this means it is a complex process. Therefore, nurses might need some aid from technology in order to make the process easier. This is what nursing informatics is all about. Nurses may use social technologies, which focus on human needs, communication, and limitations. They may also use regulatory technologies, which aim at sustaining and enhancing life of the patients. However, these should not take the place of the nurse, and the special role they play in the nursing process (Basavanthappa, 2007).

In conclusion, nursing theories are important to nurses and to the entire nursing discipline. Individuals in the nursing profession need to develop theoretical knowledge, which is based on research findings in order to develop the foundation of nursing practice. These also provide guidance to the process of nursing education, research, and practice. Nursing theories also make nursing practice stand out from the other disciplines. For instance, the general systems theory, which was multidisciplinary, has been adopted by professionals in the nursing discipline, and enhanced to be more specific to nursing only. Orem’s theory provides a framework through which the nursing process can be practiced. Apart from defining the nursing care needs of patients, this theory also describes various interactions that should occur between the patient and the nurse. Therefore, nurses must ensure they interact with their patients and build good relations with them, and not let computers and technology take their place in the nursing process.

 

References

Baker, D.J. (2012). “Nursing Informatics.” Perioperative Nursing Clinics. 7(20120151-160.

Retrieved 4 February 2013 http://dspace.uta.edu/bitstream/handle/10106/9689/Baker_2012_Informatics_PNC.pdf?sequence=1

Basavanthappa, B.T. (2007). Nursing Theories. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Publishers.

Clancy, T.R., Effken, J.A. & Pesut, D. (2008). “Applications of complex systems theory in

nursing education, research, and practice.” Abstract. Nurse Outlook. 2008 Sep-

Oct; 56(5):248-256. Retrieved 4 February 2013

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18922279

Hartweg, D. (1991). Dorothea Orem: Self-Care Deficit Theory. London: SAGE.

 

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Risk Management of Vascular Catheter-Related Infections

By Name

February 5^th, 2013

MHA 5014

Dr. Christopher Miller

 

Abstract

Vascular catheter-related infections have become common cases today, leading to loss of lives. This is a hospital acquired condition, which is expensive for hospitals to deal with, once it happens. It is therefore, necessary that all health facilities exposed to the risk of vascular catheter-related infections adopt a proactive risk management assessment, in order to prevent this condition, which is detrimental to both the patient, and hospital. The risk management process comprises various steps, which must be performed appropriately to ensure great outcome. The process also requires strong leadership and the involvement of the hospital staff, health professionals, patients, and their families. This will help prevent this risk, which undermines patients’ safety and the nursing practice.

 

Introduction

            Risk management in health organizations is essential as it enhances the safety of patients in health facilities. Therefore, managers have the responsibility of overseeing the processes involved in both proactive risk management and patient safety in their health facilities. There are different risks, which patients in hospitals are exposed to, and fortunately, all of them can be managed beforehand. An example is the risk concerning the hospital acquired conditions by patients. There are various conditions patients might catch in the course of their nursing care, as a result of the nurses’ error, among other reasons. This is always costly to the health facility, and therefore, it is better if such risks are managed proactively, to save the health facility costs.

It is estimated that close to 100,000 cases of vascular catheter-related infections occur every year, causing an estimated 28,000 deaths. The treatment of each case costs about $45,000. This makes vascular catheter-related infections a big and costly problem for any health care organization. This is a hospital caused condition, which results when bacteria follow along after the insertion of a catheter. These bacteria could have come from the catheter itself due to contamination, poor aseptic methods, or natural skin flora, among others. Solutions to this incident include using proper aseptic technique, changing catheters at a fixed interval and using catheters made of materials more resistant to adherence by pathogens can reduce the number of bloodstream infections at a facility. For many years, it was considered that the hospital acquired conditions are inevitable and nothing could be done about it. However, different studies later showed that more than a half of all HAIs were preventable, if evidence-based strategies are used, in addition to the culture of safety in health organizations. This paper focuses on the proactive risk management of catheter-related infections in a health facility, and why it is important to manage such a risk proactively (O’Grady & Pittet, 2004).

Proactive Risk Management Assessment

            Risk management is essential in all industries. This addresses liabilities in a proactive and a reactive manner. In the health care sector, risk management puts into consideration the safety of patients, the rights of patients, as well as quality assurance. It is important to proactively manage risk in health care, as this might happen in different health care aspects, such as errors in the electronic record keeping, and medical errors. In this case, the risk of vascular catheter-related infections occurs because of medical errors (Kavaler & Spiegel, 2003).

This situation therefore, requires to be risk managed, as vascular catheter-related infections result in the great loss by health organization, since treatment of this is expensive. Proactive risk management assessment will be instrumental in preventing the occurrence of the catheter-related infections. In this risk management programme, the first step will be to form a team of professions, which will identify and review any activities that may lead to this condition in the health organization. After reviewing the risks, the team will quantify the risk. This is by reviewing the impact the risk might have on the health facility, and the probability of its occurrence. This will be by the use of a scale of 1-4, one being low, and four being high. Finally, the team will set up the mitigation plans for the risk, which in this case will involve both individuals and groups of people in the health facility (Kavaler & Spiegel, 2003).

The nurses and other staff members will be exposed to occasional trainings on the vascular catheter-related infections, how these occur, and their prevention. This will make them adjust their practice and work in ways that will reduce the risk of vascular catheter-related infections. Using an evidence-based insertion bundle by the nurses, will also be recommended, as a preventive strategy of the risk. In addition, emphasis on observing hand hygiene during the insertion process, as well as use of sterile gloves and other maximum barrier precautions during the process. Likewise, staff will be encouraged to promptly remove devices, when they are no longer needed (Sharpe, 1999).

Monitoring Risk

            The risk management team will perform monitoring and updating of the risk. The mitigation plans identified will also be updated in this step. The team will meet regularly for the purpose of reviewing and updating the gathered risk information. Monitoring of this risk will be performed by different products and tools, which are capable of reporting potential risks.

Monitoring will involve the use of checklists to record adherence by the nurses to the recommended safety practices. During the training, nurses will have been trained on various preventive strategies and safety measures to practice in order to prevent vascular catheter-related infections. These will be monitored as they work, to prove if they adhere to the recommended practices. Such process measures are multiplied by 100 to get a percentage, the highest being 100 per cent, which is also the target measure. The staff should be able to adhere to the elements of insertion they were trained on, as well as other preventive and safety measures during the process, including hand hygiene, cleaning and disinfecting of equipment, and use of sterilized equipment in the process, among others. Monitoring will also involve the assessment of the nurses’ insertion practices in individual units and facilities. Finally, from the monitoring process, gaps will be identified in the recommended processes, which help in the improvement of the strategies for prevention of vascular catheter-related infections in the health organization (Kavaler & Spiegel, 2003).

Improvement Recommendations

            In order to achieve effective proactive risk management assessment, managers should consider re-establishing their management team. On a regular basis, the managers should select new members and add them to the team, while eliminating the old team members. This is because; having the same individuals in a risk management team is not advisable, as these may not come up with the desired outcome (“The Joint Commission,” 2012).

Managers should also consider hiring members of the risk management team from other companies other than the risk management companies. This is because an outsider might be in a position to identify a risk, which an insider might not take note of. Risk management must also involve the members of staff. Therefore, through a continuous communication with staff members, the manager should ensure that these are updated on the progress of the plan. Involving the staff is serves a function in the risk management process, as these will be able to adjust their work practices, in relation to the risk identified (“The Joint Commission,” 2012).

Leadership of the health facility will play a big role in the improvement of the risk. The proactive risk management assessment introduces a form of culture change in the health organization, therefore, the CEO and other leaders must show commitment to the process. These must communicate the goal of the program to the staff, provide the financial resources required for the program, and collaborate with staff to overcome potential obstacles to the program (Youngberg, 2011).

A culture of safety is another recommendation for improvement. The whole organization must exhibit their commitment to the safety of their patients through observing safety in their practice. The environment in the health organization should be blame-free and allow for staff members to freely report in case of any medical error. In this organizational culture, there must be a high level of collaboration among the staff members to ensure that all problems relating to patient safety are solved collectively. Staff members should also be cultured to generously provide any essential resources needed for patient safety (Youngberg, 2011).

Empowerment of staff is essential as an improvement recommendation. When staff members are empowered, they will be able to speak out fearlessly and without intimidation, when they witness unacceptable behaviour and actions, which could jeopardize patient safety. Managers must also ensure there are sufficient resources needed for the efforts aimed at preventing the risk. These include training equipment, training and competency assessment resources, trained professionals as trainers, and maintenance of an appropriate level of staff (Kavaler & Spiegel, 2003).

The management should also ensure the availability of written policies and procedures, with the guidelines for the evidence-based practices. This should be made available to all staff members, as a reminder and guide in their practices. It is also necessary to update them, review them, and monitor their effects on the practice of the staff.  Finally, it is advisable to involve patients and their families in the risk assessment process. These will be brought on board to receive education and training on the preventive steps they can take to ensure that the risk of vascular catheter-related infections is reduced (“The Joint Commission,” 2012).

Conclusion

            Proactive risk management is a crucial process for any health organization, and it is advisable that all health facilities identify, analyze, and manage their risks. Risks in health facilities are different, depending on the health services they offer. In the case of catheter-related infections, it is important that this condition, which is a risk, be managed before it happens. This is because it is expensive to deal with, and to manage hospital acquired conditions once they happen. Therefore, a plan should be put in place for health facilities vulnerable to this risk, to ensure that they manage the risk. Managing this risk involves various steps. Once the risk is identified, its regulatory requirements are put into consideration, as well as the implications, the environment within which the risk might occur is also assessed. Monitoring and assessment of the process is equally important to determine the progress or the effect the risk management program is making on the health facility. In addition, risk management process requires different resources, to make it effective. There are various factors that influence the risk management process, and these can influence it positively or negatively. The organizational culture is one of the factors that play a major role. If the organizational culture is conducive, then the risk management will be successful. Additionally, the risk management process must include all the staff of the health facility, including some patients and their families. This is therefore, a collective role that must be played by different parties, to ensure the safety of patients. Managers therefore need to ensure that all conditions in their organization are favorable for the success of their proactive risk management.

 

 

References

 “The Joint Commission.” (2012). Preventing Central Line Associated Bloodstream Infection: A

Global Challenge, A Global Perspective. Retrieved 5 February 2013 http://www.jointcommission.org/assets/1/18/CLABSI_Monograph.pdf

Kavaler, F. & Spiegel, A. (2003). Risk Management in Health Care Institutions: A Strategic

Approach. London: Jones & Bartlett Learning

O’Grady, N. & Pittet, D. (2004). Catheter-related Infections In The Critically Ill. New

York: Springer.

Sharpe, C. (1999). Nursing Malpractice: Liability and Risk Management. New York:

Greenwood Publishing Group.

Youngberg, B. J. (2011). Principles of risk management and patient safety. Sudbury, MA:

Jones and Bartlett.

 

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Justifying the Japanese Internment Camps

            The Japanese relocation to internment camps happened because of different reasons rooted in some of the events in the Second World War. During this war, Japan was allied to Germany, which was the rival of America. Japan therefore, opposed and fought against America in the Second World War. What aggravated the tension between USA and Japan was the attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii by Japan. This was an American territory, although it had not formally become a state. After this incident, USA felt that the Japanese Americans living in the country could possibly act as spies, for further attacks in the country. This led to the decision of all the Japanese immigrants being relocated to internment camps. This move by the USA was justifiable, as it would help curb any violent acts from Japan, and enhance safety in USA. However, this was also considered as a prejudice toward Asians, since the same sanctions were not taken against immigrants of other rivals such as Germany, and therefore, this is unjustifiable (Welgny 23). This paper will use literature review to address this issue from the two points of view, before taking a stand in the conclusion.

The Japanese immigrants were put in internment camps not because they were guilty of crime, but because their country had become one of the USA’s enemies during the period of the Second World War. The USA therefore, considered these Japanese people in America as a threat to its national security.  During this period, most Japanese people in America had occupied the area in the west coast of America. They worked hard to sustain their families. They had bought land, gotten an education, and had become citizens of America, who participated in voting during American elections. Problems rose after their country of origin attacked the USA. This had their land taken away from them, and them sent to internment camps, to avoid further attacks in the USA from Japan. Since these were of a different race, it was easy to identify them, therefore, all were sent to the camps (Sakurai, 44).

An order known as, “Establishing the War Relocation Authority in the Executive Office of the President and Defining its Functions and Duties,” also referred to as “order 9066,” was signed by President Roosevelt on 19^th February 1942. In this order, there were the instructions about relocating close to 1110,000 American Japanese people to the ten internment camps that were available. When the Japanese were taken to the internment camps, they lost their rights as American citizens, as most of them were legally settled in America. This also separated them from the things and people they loved. The camps were fenced, with block arrangements inside. In each block, there were more than ten barracks, a recreational hall, and one mess hall. This also included car storage and repair area, canteens, hospitals, schools, a post office, a library, among others (Welgny 47).

Apart from being alienated from the wider society, the Japanese Americans were exposed to many hardships in the internment camps. Since most of the camps were located in desert places, the Japanese people had difficulties dealing with the extreme unbearable temperatures in the camps. For instance, during summer periods, the temperatures could reach 100 degrees and more. On the other hand, winter periods had extremely low temperatures, going as low as negative 30 degrees in some of the camps. Meals in these camps were served in meager portions. Most of the food was grown in the camps, including vegetables and fruits. In addition, the people bred livestock in the camps, which was also a source of food. Due to insufficient provision of healthcare in the camps, most Japanese people died when they got sick. The psychological stress that most of them were experiencing also contributed to the deaths of Japanese people in the camps. Aggressive military guards sometimes harassed the people, killing those who showed signs of resistance to their orders (Heinrichs 31).

Although the Japanese Americans were later released from the internment camps, this was a nasty experience, which was detrimental to all aspects of their lives. On being released from the camps, the Japanese had no homes to go to, since new families now occupied their homes. Additionally, they had no land, as this was taken away from them when they were placed in the camps. They therefore, had to start life a new, and attempt to regain all their life basics, which they had lost while in the camps. Initially, they did this without the help of the American government (Welgny 83).

In 1948, the Congress reached a consensus to compensate the Japanese Americans for the loss they experienced while in the internment camps. Each Japanese American was therefore, given close to ten cents, for each dollar they had lost. This shows a sense of remorse in the government’s deeds. The Congress also developed the civil liberties Act in 1988, which made it clear that the congress had realized that the Japanese Americans were treated unjustly during the internment period. The security reasons offered for the internment were unreliable, baseless, and only motivated by racism and discrimination. This portrayed the American government as possessing poor leadership capabilities, since this event cannot be compared to how a good leadership government system would have acted. Denying innocent citizens their liberty rights and other rights is not a way that can be adopted by good leaders. All these pointed to the bias and weakness of the congress at that particular period. The congress therefore deemed it important to pass an apology to the Japanese people and on behalf of all America. However, this did not make the Japanese Americans feel any better, as the government did not support them fully while they were trying to fix their lives back to normal (Dickerson 54).

Even though the Japanese Americans went back to living their normal lives again, life was not the same, as they knew it. They had difficulty finding new jobs, and getting loans. This had a lifetime effect on some Japanese families. Many were psychologically and emotionally damaged, while some died. Today, some Japanese American families are still involved in legal cases, demanding for fully compensation by the American government, for all the loses they incurred while in the internment camps (Heinrichs 54).

The Japanese American Internment: Civil Liberties Denied was written by Burgan Michael, and published in 2007. It is a great and resourceful book on the subject of the Japanese American Internment. The author of this book offers detailed information concerning the Japanese internment situation, starting from how the Japanese lived before the internment, to the internment period. He addresses what the events during the internment meant to the internees, and how the Japanese were affected by the internment. He as well analyzes the implications of the internment of the Japanese Americans. This is a useful source to this paper, as it unravels the situation as it was in the Japanese Americans internment camps.

In her book, Years of Infamy, The Untold Stories of America’s concentration camps, Michi Welgny also describes the events leading to the incarceration of more than 110,000 Japanese Americans during the Second World War. What inspired her to write this book, which was published in is the thought that the internment of the Japanese Americans was unjust and wrong, yet it was never given the seriousness it deserves, as it has been perceived only but partially. This book therefore, also has the aim of reminding the readers that they are responsible for guarding their own liberties, which are important to them. She describes the internment process, and all the accompanying events, by using different primary and secondary sources.  For instances, she makes use of legal cases, federal reports, among others. However, she sometimes is biased in the interpretation of her sources, by giving contradicting opinions about the same source.

Whether the internment of Japanese Americans should be justified or not, is dependent on the outcome of an analysis of the events leading to the internment, the events in the internment camps, as well as what happened to the Japanese Americans after their release from the internment camps. Primarily, there was an element of discrimination and bias in the way the Japanese Americans’ relocation was conducted. While all the Japanese Americans living in the American Pacific coast were relocated to the internment camps, none of those living in Hawaii was relocated, yet these accounted for almost a third of the Hawaii population. This is believed to be the case because the government figured it would spend a lot of money on transporting the Japanese Americans in Hawaii to the internment camps. In addition, since the Japanese Americans in Hawaii mostly served as laborers, interning all the Japanese in this region would mean that the region suffers economically, due to lack of sufficient labor. From this, it then becomes clear that the internment of the Japanese Americans living in the Pacific coast was unnecessary and was motivated by a different reason (Dickerson 61).

The government of the United States of America did not punish the German Americans, and other Americans from the America’s rivals in the Second World War. Choosing to intern the Japanese Americans only is an act of prejudice against the people of Asian origin. This was therefore, highly discriminatory. It is easy then for anyone to conclude that this was an element of racism, as the government chose to intern only individuals from a particular race. Therefore, the internment of the Japanese Americans would have been more justifiable, at least if all the citizens from the enemies of the United States were interned as well. Interning the Japanese Americans only was discriminatory and racist (Howard 98).

The internment camps in America for the Japanese Americans is similar to the Nazi concentration camps. In both cases, the internees are subjected to poor living conditions, and many hardships, including starvation and forced labor. This denied them their liberties, and dehumanized them. They lost their property and their business opportunities, as the government did not warn them earlier about the relocation. The notification to prepare for relocation was announced forty-eight hours prior to the relocation, therefore the Japanese Americans lacked sufficient time to dispose of their property at reasonable prices. This has been viewed as a tactic by Americans to ensure the economic status of the Japanese Americans was derailed. The Japanese Americans were hardworking people who had earned themselves considerable amount of wealth in the United States, which was not pleasant to most Americans. Most Californians were jealous of the success of Japanese Americans. Additionally, after the release from the internment camps, the American government did not give a satisfactory compensation to the Japanese Americans. This was equally wrong, as it was the government’s fault that these lost their property, thus the government had to fully compensate them, as a way of showing them justice (Dickerson 65).

It is possible for one to think that by interning the Japanese Americans, the government was offering them protection from the possible outrage of most Americans, following the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese. However, this stops to make sense, considering the harsh treatment the Japanese Americans were subjected to in the internment camps. While in the camps, the Japanese Americans were forced to take an oath, declaring their loyalty to the United States of America. Those who accepted to take the oath remained in the camps, and helped to make equipment such as parachutes, for use by the American army in the world war. On the other hand, those that refused to take the oath were further relocated to different internment camps in the Rocky Mountains (Heinrichs 69).

The 1988 civil liberties Act by the congress showed that the government regretted the harsh treatment of the Japanese Americans, and it also realized that all the events leading to the internment camps were motivated by racism and discrimination. The congress also realized the injustices subjected to Japanese Americans, as they were not compensated for all their loses. This therefore, proves that the internment of Japanese Americans was based on racism, and not the need for national security, as always stated (Burgan 97).

In conclusion, the internment of Japanese Americans a devastating event, and this resulted in both detrimental long-term and short-term effects. Most Japanese Americans were psychologically hurt. Some succumbed to their illnesses, while others committed suicide in the camps. They also lost their land and property. Although the government claimed that this was the purpose of state security, the same sanctions were not observed in all the citizens of the descent of American rivals, neither did the Japanese Americans in Hawaii face the same conditions. This was a sad incident in America’s history. Removing the Japanese Americans from the society, on the suspicion that they could be spies, was discriminatory and unjust. However, this could have also helped them escape the violence other Americans would expose them to, as a revenge for the deeds of their country as a rival to America during the Second World War. Today, most scholars of law and historians consider the Japanese Americans internment among some of the grave mistakes that ever happened in the history of America. Therefore, justifying this is same as trying to right a wrong, which is impossible, and wrong.

 

 

Works Cited

Burgan, Michael. The Japanese American Internment: Civil Liberties Denied. New Jersey:

Capstone, 2007.

Dickerson, James. Inside America’s Concentration Camps: Two Centuries of Internment and

Torture. New York: Chicago Review Press, 2010

Heinrichs, Ann. The Japanese American Internment: Innocence, Guilt, and Wartime Justice.

London: Michelle Benson, 2011.

Howard, John. Concentration Camps on the Home Front: Japanese Americans in the House of

Jim Crow. New York: University of Chicago Press, 2008

Sakurai, Gail. Japanese American Internment Camps. New York: Scholastic Library Pub, 2007.

Welgny, Michi. Years of Infamy, the Untold Story of America’s Concentration Camps. New

York: William Morrow and Company, 1976.

 

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Project Plans in the New World – A Review

            In the business world today, project planning is regarded by many people as instrumental in ensuring successful completion of a project. Therefore, many companies invest in project planning at the beginning of their projects. However, some clients, as well as a number of employees in companies, view project planning as a waste of time. They assume people should just embark on doing the project, without planning it (Carmichael 14). Nonetheless, project planning ensures efficiency in the way a project is run, and therefore, I would recommend that companies invest more in project planning.

In this article Project Plans in the New World by Rosenwinkel, the argument presented bases on the relevance of project planning in the contemporary world. The author observes that the global economy has changed in many ways, and this has ushered in a new world, where probably everyone is struggling to survive, with greater difficulty, not as before. He claims that today, more people are knowledgeable and empowered, therefore, time and money is of great importance to them. The author feels that not all projects need project planning, as some can be successful without planning. This saves money and time, which are among the most valuable resources today. Whether a project requires planning or not, is dependent on different factors, including its size (Rosenwinkel WEB).

I agree with some of the sentiments by the author. First, the economy today needs to grow further. Therefore, it is important for companies to invest more time and financial resources in their businesses to ensure their profitability. Therefore, doing project planning for small projects that, even after assessments are proven to be not in need of planning, is a waste of time and money, which could have been invested somewhere else within the company. According to the author, apart from the project size, planning may be used as a tool to control the free-wheelers in the company. This is true, as some individuals in a company will be against planning, because of their own selfish interests. Since a project plan is specific with roles and budgetary allocations, it will be hard for any employee to mishandle finances meant for the project, or evade their duties. However, I consider that in as much as this is true, employees need to be dignified and discipline enough, so that project planning is not used as a control measure for their vices. Finally, the author considers the cost of the project plan as another determining factor of whether a plan is necessary or not (Rosenwinkel WEB). It is unfair to have a high-cost plan in a project that will not influence a company’s customers. This is true, as some companies spend a lot of money on plans that result in futile projects (Chitkara 60).

The author thinks that project plans are restrictive. He therefore, advises that people should not stick to the formats of the plans. Instead, they should use any strategy that they feel will control the project appropriately (Rosenwinkel WEB). This is an important fact the author observes. The pre-defined ways of doing things in the society has limited people, as they cannot explore other opportunities apart from those provided. This applies to plans too. Employees might have good strategies to apply in a project, but since there is no provision for these in the plan guidelines, they have to give them up, despite the fact that these could have had positive influence on the project and its outcomes.

Rosenwinkel emphasizes the importance of measuring project variables. These include people variables and project variables. Reviewing these and rating them on a scale of 1 to 10 will reveal if a plan is worth the project or not. He also addresses accountability and commitment in the whole project process (WEB). All employees involved in a project must show commitment and be accountable for every single step and decision they make. Lack of this will ruin the whole project, or lead to undesirable outcomes. This is unethical, a waste of money, waste of time, and waste of human resources. This is therefore a valid point that all employees must be aware of, as the project’s success largely depends on their efforts and commitment.

Ultimately, project plans remain a crucial part of projects in companies. These come with a cost, therefore, raising the question about their relevance. In some cases, these are relevant, while they are irrelevant in other cases. Therefore, it is necessary that a company assesses and examines different factors of the project, to determine whether it will need a plan or not. This saves money, time, and labour, which is great, as these are valued and needed more in the contemporary world economy.

 

Works Cited

Carmichael, D. G. “Project Planning and Control.” New York: Taylor & Francis, 2006. Print.

Chitkara, K. “Construction Project Management: Planning scheduling and controlling.”London:

Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2002. Print.

Rosenwinkel, James. “Project plans in the new world. (Systems development project planning).”

Journal of Systems Management, March 01, 1995. Web.

 

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BUSINESS DECISION MAKING – WALMART STORES INC

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22^nd, February 2013

 

Background of the Company

            Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. is the biggest retailer and largest corporation in the world. The second retailer in the world is Carrefour SA, of France. Although these two compete fiercely, Wal-Mart makes thrice the profit of Carrefour in a year. The total number of employees employed by Wal-Mart in the United States alone is about 1.2 million. This therefore, makes Wal-Mart to be the largest nongovernmental employer in the US. This company is also big in size, considering it has 1,478 discount stores, which are found in all the 50 states of America. The 1,471 Wal-Mart supercenters include both grocery stores and discount outlets. Owing to this, Wall-Mart is the biggest retailer of food in the US. In addition, Wal-Mart also owns 538 Sam’s clubs and 64 neighborhood markets, which are smaller outlets for drugs and food, which also sell a variety of other products (Soderquist, 2005).

Wal-Mart ventured into the international market in the year 1991. There are Wal-Mart discount stores in Puerto Rico and Canada, supercenters in China, Argentina, Germany, Brazil, United Kingdom, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and South Korea. Wal-Mart’s Sam clubs are also located in Puerto Rico, Mexico, China, and Brazil. These, among others are the international ventures of Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. Today, Wal-Mart still has plans to expand further, both locally and internationally (Wal-Mart, 2012).

Sam Walton (1918-1992) founded Wal-Mart Stores Inc. in the year 1962. Upon his death in 1992, Sam Walton ranked among the wealthiest people in the United States. He attempted to make it in the retail business since the early 1950’s, when he opened a Ben Franklin variety store in Newport. When he lost his lease, he opened another store in Bentonville, Arkansas in 1950. Together with his brother, J.L. Walton, Sam Walton possessed a number of Ben Franklin stores, totaling to nine. Their effort to convince the owners of Ben Franklin franchise to lower product prices and allow them a bigger volume, did not yield fruit. This is what motivated the Walton brothers to do their own thing. Therefore, in 1962, they opened the first Wal-Mart discount store in Rogers, Arkansas. They opened more stores, with a strategy of low prices for their customers. Bigger stores were opened, and these offered products to customers at low prices, including twelve yearly promotions for customers. The period in the late 1960’s saw, the Walton brothers own 18 Wal-Mart stores, in addition to 15 Ben Franklin franchises in four states. In 1969, the Waltons decided to incorporate all their ventures, and named them Wal-Mart Stores Inc (Wal-Mart, 2012). Wal-Mart Stores Inc. was listed in the New York stock exchange in 1972. The Ben Franklin stores were later slashed off from Wal-Mart, to pave way for more expansion opportunity for Wal-Mart stores. Wal-Mart grew at an alarming rate, and by 1979, the company achieved a $ 1 billion mark, and ranked by Forbes as the fastest growing company (Soderquist, 2005).

Wal-Mart offers diverse products and services to its customers. This company sells everything. Its retail goods include different types of electronics, music downloads, jewelry, movies, books, baby stuff, grocery items, home furnishing, and sporting items. The company also offers photo services. Its financial services include money transfer, debit cards, store credit cards, check cashing, bill payment, and check printing. In addition, there is the wireless service, where customers enjoy unlimited voice calls and texts through the Wal-Mart Family Talk Wireless service provider. Finally, Wal-Mart is also involved in pharmacy. This is mainly through offering customer prescriptions.

An executive management and board of directors head Wal-Mart, comprising presidents and CEO’s of the various Wal-Mart outlets. Mike Duke is the overall president and CEO of all Wal-Mart stores. In the US, Bill Simon is the president and CEO of Wal-Mart stores in the country (Wal-Mart, 2012). Wal-Mart presently has its headquarters in Bentonville, Arkansas, in the United States. This company today exists in an era of success. The founder of this company used brilliant ideas, and put in efforts, which have seen Wal-Mart to be one of the organizations in the world, which are making a difference. Serving more than 176 million customers in the world, Wal-Mart has changed the lives of its customers, and its other shoppers. Wal-Mart ranks high in the contemporary market, as it makes an average income of $ 16 billion, beating most of its competitors (Soderquist, 2005).

 

References

Soderquist, D. (2005). The Wal-Mart Way: The Inside Story of the Success of the World’s Largest Company. New York: Thomas Nelson Inc.

Wal-Mart (2012). Executive Management. Retrieved from http://corporate.walmart.com/our-story/leadership/executive-management

 

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