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Effects of Volcanic Smog in Hawaii

The state of Hawaii comprises eight islands, which have several volcanoes. However, of all the islands, only the Big Island has an active volcano. Kilauea Volcano is known for its volcanic activities since the early 1980s. This has continued over the years, and has had different effects on people and the environment near the volcano. During its volcanic activity, the volcano emits dangerous gases as well as lava flows, which flow constantly. The volcanic gases react with atmospheric air to form volcanic smog, also called a vog. The volcanic smog created by Kilauea volcano is hazardous to the surrounding population as well as the whole island, economically, socially, environmentally, and physically.

A volcanic smog results when sulfur dioxide mixes with different other gases, moisture, and sunlight in the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide is produced, whether the volcanic activity was small or big. The effects of volcanic smog are greatly felt by those people living very close to the volcano. However, those living far away from the volcano are still affected, though in a lower measure. This is mainly because of the action of winds, which transfer the smog to different areas. In Hawaii, it is estimated that there has been approximately 50 volcanic eruptions in the twentieth Century only (Rado Web).

Water in the area is greatly affected by the volcanic smog. First, there is the formation of acidic rain when sulfur dioxide in the gases emitted reacts with Oxygen in the air. The acid rain is lethal to plants, animals, and human beings. This therefore leads to other major effects. People in Hawaii Island mainly depended on rooftop rainwater for drinking and domestic and farm use. Therefore, when the volcanic smog results in acidic rain, this means the people cannot benefit from this water, as it is not safe for any use. This water cannot be drunk as it is contaminated. Therefore, they have to look for alternative sources of water for domestic use.

Similarly, the acidic rain is not good for plants and other organisms. Most people in Hawaii Island practise farming as their main source of income. They plant different crops including flowers in plantations. When acidic rain occurs, the crops in plantations are destroyed, and this has forced most farmers living around Kilauea Volcano to abandon farming and look for alternative means of survival (“NCBCNEWS” Web). The sulfur dioxide in the volcanic smog has had disastrous effects on one Kau district. Many farms and nurseries have been destroyed, in addition to putting at risk flower and vegetable farms and other crops such as tomatoes, lettuce, medical marijuana, as well as sunflower, and roses. The Hawaii government, because of the economic depression has not been able to compensate farmers for the losses, forcing most farmers to relocate. This has therefore disrupted the economic and social set-up of people, including farmers, as some have been compelled to move out of Hawaii in search of different jobs (“NCBCNEWS” Web).

Apart from the economic effects, volcanic smog also affects the health of people. The volcanic smog comprises a variety of dangerous gases, and small particles and droplets that have high levels of acidity. All these can be inhaled by people, to rest in the lungs. This affects the mucus membrane and lungs, as well as lung function. This is in addition to the worsening of lung conditions such as asthma, and bronchitis, among others (“MedlinePlus.” Web). In 1997, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) noted that respiratory problems due to sulfur vapors mostly affect young children (Rado Web).This is because their lungs are still developing and so might have long-term effects on the children. This puts at the risk the future population of Hawaii Island, as these children are the future of the society. Collaborating with the Hawaii Department of Health, the NIEHS conducted a health research in Hawaii to establish the relationship between volcanic smog and respiratory problems in children (Rado Web). However, the long-term effects of volcanic smog have not been realized yet. Therefore, US scientists, together with the Hawaiian Volcanic Observatory (HVO),  in an effort to determine the impact of volcanic smog on human health, conduct keen monitoring of the composition and amount of gas emitted from the volcano’s eruption. The Hawaiian Volcanic Observatory (HVO), compares the information they collect with other sources with similar topics, and hands it over to health organizations who study further effects, with the advice of HVO. In addition, the NIEHS together with the Hawaii Department of Health are still working in Hawaii to establish the long-term effects of volcanic smog on asthma and other lung complications (“USGS” Web).

The volcanic smog also presents a problem in visibility. Atmospheric moisture leads to the expansion of the particles in volcanic fog, thus reducing level of visibility. People in Hawaii experience a gray cloud and therefore have to use their headlights in traffic even during daytime. This visibility problem as well affects the air transport, as pilots cannot have clear view in the course of the vog, therefore making Hawaiian skies dangerous for flights (“USGS” Web).

Lava from the Kilauea volcano, in its molten form, flows through underground passages, called vents, to reach the Pacific Ocean. Most recently, three lava flows were experienced in the Pacific Ocean, near the Puna coast. In the ocean, the lava reacts with the ocean water to result in formation of vast steam plumes, also called “laze,” which have a high content of Hydrochloric acid. This form of pollution of seawater is an environmental threat, as it leads to death of aquatic organisms in the affected part of the ocean. However, this instance in Hawaii since the beginning of 1983 has attracted a big number of tourists from different parts of the world to come and experience the lava flows and the volcanic activity of the Kilauea volcano. However, the health risks associated with vulcanicity in Hawaii raise many concerns. This poses a health threat to all the tourists visiting the southeast coast of Hawaii Island and other parts of Hawaii. If this persists, it is clear that Hawaii will lose a considerable number of tourists, thereby affecting negatively, its tourism sector, as well as the whole economy of the Island, considering that there are benefits attached to the visits of these tourists on the Island.

The small particles and droplets in volcanic smog are sulfuric in nature. These are therefore corrosive in nature, and can be compared to the quality of dilute battery acid. When these combine with moisture in the atmosphere, the acidic rain formed, apart from affecting plants, also influences rusting. This leads to accelerated rusting of metallic objects in Hawaii Island. These include cars, and different equipment used in industries, farms, and construction. This results in losses for the owners of these equipment, and this calls for a costly maintenance of their equipment and cars (“USGS”Web).

Although the volcanic smog is a common experience in Hawaii despite its negative effects, the people living in Hawaii still carry on with their day-to-day activities. The main force behind their survival lies in the way these have adapted to the volcanic smog, especially by the employment of ways to counteract or lessen the effects of the volcanic smog. Hawaiians are advised to exercise protection from the volcanic smog. For instance, they are expected to stay indoors in case of eruptions in order to reduce their exposure to the volcanic smog. While outdoors, it is recommended that the Hawaiians wear protective facemasks, to prevent the inhaling of the dangerous gases in the volcanic smog (“MedlinePlus.” Web). In addition, they take plenty of fluids, including hot liquids in order to clear their respiratory paths. Similarly, lung exercises are recommended for Hawaiians living near the Kilauea Volcano. This helps them learn to breathe with ease, considering the constraints that lethal gases in volcanic smog present them. Therefore, with these, the Hawaiians can minimize the adverse health effects the volcanic smog exposes them to, since they cannot stop its volcanic activities (“MedlinePlus.” Web).

In conclusion, this case of Hawaii is devastating, yet it is expected to continue over the coming years as the Kilauea Volcano exhibits no signs of becoming inactive soon. Therefore, being the largest country with the emitting sulfur dioxide, Hawaii will continue to experience these effects in the future. As mentioned, these effects, presently, are already lethal to the stability of the Island in terms of the economy, the environment, social functions, and health-wise. This has resulted in destruction of farms and natural environment by the volcanic smog, which burns the plants due to its high acidity. Farmers, being unable to invest in farming anymore have been compelled to look for greener pastures in the neighboring states. The health of people is equally affected, although the long-term impact of volcanic smog on health is still being studied. These among other adverse effects continue to affect Hawaii in an unpleasant manner. Nonetheless, this situation is purely natural, and is beyond the control of Hawaii. It is only by adopting strategies to minimize the effects of this phenomenon that Hawaii will ensure the survival of its population.
Works Cited

“MedlinePlus.” Lung Problems and Volcano Smog. 23 October 2012. Web. Retrieved 5

December 2012. <http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/007468.htm.>

“NCBCNEWS” Volcanic Smog Shutting Down Hawaii Farmers. 3 September 2009. Web.

Retrieved 5 December, 2012. <http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/29595775/ns/us_news-

environment/t/volcanic-smog-shutting-down-hawaii-farmers/#.UL_J2uRX1TI>

“USGS” Volcanic Air Pollution – A Hazard in Hawaii. June 200. Web. Retrieved 5 December,

2012. <http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs169-97/>

Rado, Alicia. “USC preventive medicine researchers examine effects of volcanic air pollution on

children.” 2003, Web. Retrieved 5 December 2012. <http://www.usc.edu/uscnews/stories/8580.html>

 

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Fuel Cell

            Fuel cells have existed for the last two centuries since their discovery in 1838. However, these have only been in use for the last two decades due to lack of sufficient technology to make fuel cells a widely used source of energy. Their use was previously restricted to applications such as the United States space program. However, it is hoped that as more countries look for alternative sources of energy that are environmentally friendly, they will adopt fuel cells as the main source of energy. This is because of its environmentally friendly nature, as this form of energy does not lead to pollution of the environment.

Secondary Benefits

Apart from the main benefits associated with fuel cells in terms of environmental safety, other benefits as well result due to the use of fuel cells. Fuel cells use the element Hydrogen in the atmosphere, which is naturally occurring and is in abundance. Therefore, use of fuel cells does not put a strain on scarse natural resources in the environment. With sufficient Hydrogen to burn, fuel cells produce large amounts of heat. This heat can be used by human beings, and not put to waste. It can be tapped in quite a number of applications. For instance, it can be tapped and used in space heating, water heating, in addition to the byproduct of water that is produced.

 

 

Maximizing positive impacts

            In order to maximize the positive benefits of fuel cell, intensive research, and development needs to be undertaken in order to realize ways that will lead to production of cheaper fuel cell, which can be easily afforded by majority of countries. Additionally, this research should address the efficiency level of fuel gas in order to make it be more preferred than the other energy sources. Since Hydrogen is an essential requirement in fuel cells, more research needs to establish on the cost-effective and safe ways through which this can be extracted from the environment. Additionally, ways of getting an alternative to Platinum in fuel cells should be established through research. Platinum serves as a catalyst in the fuel cells, but due to its scarcity, cannot be employed in a wide use. Alternatively, research should aim at discovering other different sources of Platinum.

No Air Pollution

            Unlike other sources of energy, fuel cells are not lethal to the environment. Fuel cells do not lead to production of dangerous by-products. The only by-product is water, which is not harmful to the environment. The use of hydrogen as a fuel for fuel cells does not also lead to pollution of the environment. Unlike Gasoline, and diesel engines, fuel cells do not consume large quantity of fuel, thereby having a limited consumption of natural resources. Other energy sources also release dangerous gases such as Carbon Dioxide, which cause air pollution, which is responsible for the increased global warming experienced today.

Maximizing positive impacts

            Environmental pollution, including air pollution is puts at risk the health and life of all living organisms. Since fuel cells is the best alternative energy source to address the issue of air pollution presented by other energy sources, it is wise if countries adopted the use of fuel cells as fast as possible. However, this cannot be a one-day project leading to the transformation from the other energy sources to fuel cells use. Research and development should be hastened in establishing the ways through which fuel cells can be made available for use by a large population. Governments and other related organizations and companies need to come together and pool together resources and efforts in creating people’s awareness of the fuel cells. This information about fuel cells could be made available to people across the globe through the internet, conferences, and print media. If this information reaches all the world population, the benefits of fuel cells will be known, therefore increasing the probability of the adoption of fuel cells as an alternative energy source, thus maximizing the positive impacts of fuel cells.

Negative Impacts

            Currently, fuel cells are ranked among the most expensive energy sources available. These are presently priced at approximately $4500 per Kilowatt. Comparing this price with that of a diesel engine, fuel cells are far much expensive, as a diesel engine costs between $800 and $1000 per kilowatt.  This high cost is aggravated by the cost of Platinum, which is used as a catalyst in fuel cells. Platinum is rare, therefore expensive. This high cost of fuel cells therefore, can be a big letdown to its adoption as an alternative energy source in the world today. The world comprises economically disadvantaged countries, which cannot afford this cost. This factor then will derail the adoptability of fuel cells.

Minimizing negative impacts

            In order to minimize the negative impacts of fuel cells and boost its future use, scientists, governments, and private bodies need to come up with different strategies, which will be effective in solving the high cost issue, including the scarcity of Platinum, which fuel cells use as a catalyst. The core solution in this issue lies in research and development. Research and development needs to be advanced so that the cost of fuel cells is reduced, as well as maximization of its efficiency. Alternative sources of Platinum can be discovered through extensive research. Alternatively, a replacement of Platinum metal as a catalyst in fuel cells can be researched. If research yields the solution to this problem, governments need to set aside resources for the implementation of the research findings. The achievement of this will be a milestone toward the adoption of fuel cells as the main energy source in the world.

Conclusion

            With the high level of environmental degradation today, countries seek technology that is environmental friendly. The type of energy source a country uses greatly impacts on the environment. Most energy sources are not environmental friendly; this is the reason why countries are in need of better energy sources. Fuel cells are the best option available as they do not result in air pollution, and are easy to process. Although this form of energy source has existed for quite a long time, its adoption has failed mainly because of its high cost and maintenance issues. However, if these two issues are solved successfully through research, fuel cells will be the best energy source adopted by the world. Given the threat the earth faces in the case of the environmental degradation today, the adoption of fuel cells will be a great achievement, mainly in the restoration of the environment.

 

Appendix

 

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Political Reconstruction in the State of Florida after the Civil War

Florida like other Southern States was affected and devastated by the civil war. This war resulted in death of war veterans, injury of people and destruction of property. Having lost the war, the federal government in 1868 declared the congressional program of “reconstruction” in all Southern States, including Florida, in the aftermath of the civil war. In this period of reconstruction in Florida, the Republicans, who were in charge of office then introduced different changes in legislation in an attempt to ensure better living and working conditions for the African-Americans. However, this objective of reconstruction did not realize the anticipated goals, instead, the end of reconstruction resulted in the denial of civil rights to all African-Americans in the Southern States, including Florida. This era of reconstruction is significant, as it has shaped the history of the United States. Different people today have different views about the events in this era. Similarly, different authors have written their varying opinions and facts concerning the reconstruction period, bringing out their personal convictions about the period. Nonetheless, this essay focuses on the different views by various authors on the political reconstruction in the United States, and specifically, the State of Florida.

Ayers in his book, A History of the American South 1877-1906, notes that, between the end of reconstruction in 1877 and the 1906 Atlanta race riot, the American South was marked with significant changes in its social, economic, and political spheres. Economically, the South witnessed intensive industrialization and urbanization, and the domination of the railroad, while socially, pop culture emerged, including music and modern literature, and the emergence of new religious groups. However, Ayers notes that politically, the South was characterized by the elements of segregation, disfranchisement, the populist revolt, and the start of progressivism. Power was based on either persuasion or coercion (3).

Florida experienced a myriad of political changes. Ayers traces the beginning of the new era in the South to the 1870s, when the conservative democrats took power in Southern states, including Florida. Florida played an equal role as other Southern states in redrawing political boundaries between the South and whole nation. However, in early 1890s, there was witnessed the greatest revolt of populism, which played a significant role in political reconstruction of Florida. Farmers in Florida were affected negatively and were plunged in an economic depression. Although Florida experienced slight industrial growth, its farmers lived with many uncertainties.

Ayer notes that after the Republicans’ succession in the South, they aimed at forming a political alliance that would include former slaves and a few white people that were influential (5). However, their opinions and preferences on issues such as land redistribution, elections, civil rights, and educational policies varied. They later established an alliance comprising former slaves, former Northerners, and former unionists, with an objective of ensuring the economic prosperity and equal rights for the Southerners. However, this diversity became a major challenge to this alliance as most members and the voters defected with instances of unjust treatment. Eventually, the North dissociated itself from the South and this slimmed down the probability of successful reconstruction in both the North and South, without external intervention (5). Later, the conservative Democrats “redeemed” many Southern States, including Florida, therefore displacing the Republicans out of power. However, in 1877, the elections in Florida saw Democrats pronounced winners, and this brought a new meaning to the reconstruction in the South.

In Florida and other Southern States, the influential, educated, and wealthy, white people rose to demand for power, which they thought they were the rightful owners. They promised to end political bloodshed, racism, improve economy, and sustain honor in governance. The Democratic redeemers were against biracial alliances, unlike the Republicans. These therefore were most likely not to consider the blacks for political positions nor fight racism in Florida (Ayers 6). Rivalry between Democrats and Republicans continued, with Democrats laughing off the policies employed by the Republicans in state renewal. Ayers greatly feels that the Democrats were not capable of using the state government as an initiator of positive change. The Republicans highly invested in the railroad in Florida, and in business, and developed schools, asylums, and prisons. However, the Democrats considered the Republicans’ effort as nothing but corrupted and thought they would perform better, with their policies based on tax reductions and less restrictions. By 1890, there were tremendous changes starting from the railroads development in Florida, among others. This resulted in an increased rate of employment for thousands of people. Nonetheless, the railroad building was a source of income for many people who lived near (Ayers 7-8).

Canter in his book, Ossian Bingley Hart: Florida’s Loyalist Reconstruction Governor takes a different perspective in addressing the political reconstruction in Florida after the civil war. Unlike Ayers who gives a comprehensive history of the events in the South after the civil war, Canter, in his book gives a comprehensive study of the Loyalists in Florida, who were popularly known as Scalawags. In this book, Canter gives the biography of “Ossian Bingley Hart,” one of the unionists in Florida during the reconstruction period in Florida after the civil war. The influence of Hart in Florida during the reconstruction period is exclusively elaborated by Canter in this book.

First, Canter traces the history of Ossian’s family. He describes their migration from New Jersey to Virginia, then to Georgia before finally settling in East Florida in 1801. Ossian’s father, “Isaiah David Hart (1792-1861) is depicted as a having risen to become a wealthy owner of slaves, an entrepreneur, a Unionist, and a Whig politician, in addition to being the founder of Jacksonville in Florida (18-20). When East Florida became part of the United States in July 1821, Ossian gained US residency, from his Spaniard nationality. Canter presents Ossian as a man who remained loyal to the US, all his life. In addition to loyalty, Ossian was honest, tolerant, and showed a high level of commitment to the US law, in pursuit of a just society. According to Canter, Ossian drew this influence from his family, the crackers, the slaves he interacted with, and above all, his belief in Protestantism ideologies. He loved Florida, and lived in various places of the Southern states, where he formed different political alliances (23).

Canter does not dwell on the life of Ossian only, but also explains the evolution of Florida that lasted approximately fifty years from a Spanish Florida to reconstruction (25). During the civil war, Ossian remained a Unionist. However, during the reconstruction period in Florida, he founded the Florida Republican Party, in addition to a voter registrar, Supreme Court of Justice, and governor (35). Canter depicts the political reconstruction as having been highly influenced and effected by the Republican alliance of Scalawags (Southern Unionists), whom he portrays as weak; and the Northern Unionists (Carpetbaggers), together with the Negroes, and their internecine fighting (44). Canter also exposes the levels of corruption of both the Republicans and the conservative Democrats, and how they used their Machiavellian legislative systems to propagate this in Florida and other Southern states. However, the period between January 1873 – March 1874, Florida experienced a sweep of change in the state government. This was because of Ossian’s tenure as the governor (60). With him came integrity in governance, in addition to achievements in education, financial issues, and civil rights. Therefore, Ossian played an essential role during the restricting period in Florida.

Cobb, in his book Away Down South: A History of Southern Identity reflects on what the identity of the South constitutes. The main aim of Cobb was “to come to terms with the South’s role as both a real and imagined cultural entity separate and distinct from the rest of the country” (8). However, Cobb is uncertain and does not explain if the South still exists as a separate region of the United States. However, he notes that this depends on the person asking, the time they are asking this, and the reasons as to why they are asking. From this book, it is also clear that religion played an important role during the reconstruction period in Florida. However, religion played a significant role in the justification of slavery in the South, as well as compelling the Civil Rights Movements in Florida, although Cobb does not explain this. In his explanation, Cobb identifies Florida with the confederate States, but does not include the other states such as Kentucky and Missouri, which remained in the Union and were influenced by the Southern culture. Nonetheless, Cobb brings out significant ambivalence in the Southern identity. For instance, he brings this out in the context of globalization, where the Sicilian regionalists adopt the Confederate flag, with Italy being a country with a North-South divide (Cobb 329). Cobb however, notes that, “qualities long attributed to the South as special possessions are, in truth, American qualities” (326).

In the book Globalization and the American South by Cobb and Stueck, globalization is regarded as the key element contributing to the political reconstruction of Florida and the whole South, due to the impact it had on this region. The authors note that globalization resulted in a new era of the South, thus influencing the Southern history (66). They also argue that globalization is still at work in Florida and the whole South today, and has resulted in the immigration of many people toward the South. This has considerably transformed the traditional biracial system of the South. However, Cobb and Stueck blame globalization on the Southern low-wage, non-union, and focus on “economic development at the expense of human development” (2). In Florida, the railroad played a significant role with regard to transport and globalization. Nonetheless, this, according to the authors, has enhanced the commodification of the Southern identity of Florida and the flourishing of “a divisive and ultimately dangerous kind of identity politics” (15).

In Franklin’s Reconstruction after the Civil War, there is a great historical contribution to the reconstruction. Franklin mainly bases on key elements of race, politics, and ideology in addressing the events of the reconstruction period in Florida and the whole South. In the period after the civil war, Lincoln pressed for the passing of bills to restore Union. According to Franklin, the president “worked hard to gain acceptance of his plan of restoration” and “wrote letters to military leaders and civil authorities, making suggestions but no demands” (33). After the defeat of the South, people anticipated for the invasion of the North and a resistance to the new law. However, Franklin thinks that it is during the war period and not the postwar period, that reconstruction realized its achievements in Florida (40).
Franklin has a rather negative perception of reconstruction, claiming that it was a disastrous period, as it led to the destruction of the South, including Florida, and did not result in any positive changes. Reconstruction, according to Franklin, resulted in perpetual immobility. The state of Florida changed due to inability to undergo political transformation. New policies resulted in different negative consequences such as expulsion of blacks from politics, among others. Race played an important role in perpetuating negative events in Florida. For instance, Franklin argues that “the violence directed against blacks on almost every hand indicated how determined the former Confederates were to maintain this white supremacy” (67). Additionally, Franklin notes that racial segregation was still evident even in the Radical Reconstruction, which involved new leaders and new laws, as white Southerners only characterized this. Franklin asserted that, “far from entering into any conspiracy to degrade and destroy the Southern way of life,” African Americans, carpetbaggers and native whites, despite their differences, “frequently worked at cross purposes” (89).

Nonetheless, Franklin notes that at the end of reconstruction, “the South was back in the Union, with a leadership strikingly like that if the South which had seceded in 1860” (112). Therefore, “The period had brought changes, to be sure, but most of them had taken place in the north” (113). Franklin means that, Reconstruction resulted in both negative and positive effects in Florida, as well as other Southern states. Nonetheless, the changes experienced were not significant. Therefore, Florida, like other Southerners, experienced exceptionalism, racism, and a failed system. However, this era was an important period in the African American’s fight for equality.

In Foner’s Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution 1869-1877, reconstruction is viewed as an important historical event that is mostly disregarded today. According to Foner, it is during this period that attempts were made to address the evils of the civil war, and slavery. Foner gives an account of the reconstruction, beginning 1863 to 1877, in the redemption period that saw Democrats and Republicans strike a deal, including details of women movements, fighting for their rights. Foner commends the role played by blacks in the reconstruction period in Florida and other Southern states (32).

Unlike Franklin, Foner thinks reconstruction in Florida resulted in beneficial changes in public health, education, and welfare. The only failure according to Foner is how the Redeemers detested the black rule and fought to regain power (50). Therefore, racism played a negative role in the political reconstruction of Florida. Additionally, Foner uses different scenarios in his book to show that the former slaves in Florida and the larger South were committed to reconstruction, hoping it was the only way they would regain their long-denied freedom. However, Foner condemns some of the “incompetent” black Southerners and corrupt Northerners who ganged up to deny virtuous and influential white Southerners leadership positions. Nonetheless, Foner views this period as one characterized by injustices and evils. However, he commends the positive role played by former slaves in the reconstruction period, and denies the notion that whites were instrumental agents in reconstruction (77).

Foner notes that the division between the Blackbelt farmers and the upcountry farmers was retrogressive to political reconstruction in Florida, so was the reluctance of the Southern elites to give up total control over their former slaves. However, he argues that the peak of violence in reconstruction period was witnessed in the way the white Southerners unleashed violence on the former slaves, through the Ku Klux Klan (79). It was severe and the congress had to intervene. However, this persisted and resulted in more black codes and killings of the blacks. Foner describes reconstruction as a failure as it did not achieve the objective of freedom in society. The freedmen in Florida were not able to exercise their rights and freedom, even despite the numerous amendments in law and the legislation provided (86).

A Short History of Reconstruction by Foner is yet another expression of Foner’s belief that reconstruction was a failure, even worse for blacks. Foner notes that initially, reconstruction was purposed for nation building, to eradicate capitalism, stabilize the South, and transform the rebels. However, Florida as well as other states experienced problems emanating from restructuring. More blacks than whites were victims of racism and violence during this period (29).

Foner however, observes that the only significant change of this period was the freeing of the slaves. Unfortunately, these were taken into a different kind of slavery when they became sharecroppers in plantations in Florida. This resulted in social classes. Both the whites and blacks fought to manipulate the local government to take care of their race needs. The link between race and class in Florida was an impediment to social and political change. Foner also notes that at the end of reconstruction, many blacks lost their freedom and suffrage (128).

In William’s The Civil War and Reconstruction in Florida, he addresses the social, political, and cultural effects of reconstruction on the state of Florida. First, there was a prevailing notion from Lincoln, that United States was not divisible, and so this made secession illegal. The Southern governments according to Lincoln were illegal, and not part of the Union (35). Reconstruction, in Lincoln’s view, was meant for reunification of these states, without punishing the Southern states. However, the assassination of Lincoln made it possible for the Radical Republicans to influence the process of reconstruction (42). Florida experienced clashes over the core issues of civil rights for former slaves. However, on the positive, restructuring saw different amendments put in place, mainly for abolishment of trade, voting rights for slaves and blacks, and equal laws for all blacks and whites. At the end of reconstruction, compromise of 1877 was reached, which ushered in the “Jim Crow Era,” that marked the start of a long period, where blacks in the South were not granted their rights as American citizens (50).

Conclusively, the authors share their opinions on reconstruction era. These differ basing on their perspectives and perceptions of the reconstruction. Narrowing these views down to the state of Florida, most agree that reconstruction was a failure, as it did not lead to the freedom of people; instead, it resulted in more evils and injustices. This is quite true; however, political reconstruction in Florida and other Southern states too had its positive side. This period, I consider it vital in the American history, and specifically in the state of Florida. This was a learning process for both whites and blacks in Florida. Reconstruction boosted industrialization in Florida and other states. This was an era of realization, which led to Western expansionism, and helped the South; including Florida discover their natural resources. All the problems witnessed during this period can only be thought of as learning experience and not failure for the state. Reconstruction resulted in lasting effects such as the amendments of the constitution, which are highly valued today as they were then. Therefore, although political reconstruction in Florida did not achieve its objectives, it still counts today as an important historical period, which has shaped the state of Florida to its current state.

 

Works Cited

Ayers, Edward. “Southern Crossing: A History of the American South 1877-1906.” New York:

Oxford University Press, 1995.
Canter, Brown. “Ossian Bingley Hart: Florida’s Loyalist Reconstruction Governor.” Baton

Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1997.

Cobb, James. “Away Down South: A History of Southern Identity.” New York: Oxford

University Press, 2005.
Cobb, James and Stueck, William. “Globalization and the American South.” ed. Athens. GA:

University of Georgia Press, 2005.

William, Davis. “The Civil War and Reconstruction in Florida.” New York: Columbia

University Press, 1913.
Foner, Eric. “A Short History of Reconstruction.” New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1990.

Foner, Eric. “Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution 1869-1877.” New York: Harper

Collins, 1988.
Franklin, John. “Reconstruction after the Civil War.” Second Edition. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press. 1994.

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Seed Patenting

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2^nd, December 2012

 

Table of Contents

 

Seed Patenting – An Overview.. 3

Global Corporation – The Case of Monsanto. 4

Other Global Actors. 5

The US Government 5

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 6

Oppositional Movement Represented by Opposition Activist, Ms. Vandala Shiva. 7

Greenpeace. 9

Recommendations. 10

Conclusion. 11

Works Cited. 12

 

Seed Patenting – An Overview

Seed patenting rose because of the numerous technological advances by the biotechnology companies in the field of agriculture. These companies depend on the protection of their patents, and continuously struggle to ensure the extension of what they can patent. The passing of the Plant Patent Act in 1930 has seen a series of amendments, which finally paved way for the acceptance of organism patenting. Being part of organism patenting, seed patenting continues to raise many controversies today. However, seed patenting in the US and other countries is allowed to primarily serve the purpose of motivation to inventors. It is argued that without seed patenting, further inventions would be limited. Therefore, seed patenting is a way through which companies or individuals make profits from their patents, through fining and prosecuting those found guilty of infringing on their patents. However, the controversy of this whole issue lies in the aspect of its legal, moral, and ethical implications on different players in society.

Farmers are the most affected parties of seed patenting by companies, as they are denied equal access to seed varieties, thus limiting their freedom in the agriculture practice. Seed patenting generally raises many issues based on ethics and morals. However, most views opposed to seed patenting cite its support for a materialistic conception of life. It is as well unethical as allows for a biased human control of information and organisms that occur naturally in the environment, which are a common heritage. Additionally, seed patenting acts against plant welfare as plants are subjected to simultaneous researches.

 

Global Corporation – The Case of Monsanto

Monsanto is considered the biggest global agricultural company. It embraces genetic engineering and makes many profits from its patents. Today, Monsanto boasts of over twenty products that can be bought on its website. Among these products, is the genetically modified corn. Monsanto, among other agricultural companies in the US, are allowed to patent their seeds, in addition to other living organisms. Monsanto has fully taken advantage of this US patenting bill to come up with a whopping 647 biotech plant patents. Considering its investment in seed patents, Monsanto has hired specific employees and set aside a special budget to address its patent issues, including investigating farmers who infringe on its patents. After their development of a new organism and modified seeds, Monsanto patents the products with immediate effect to avoid them being used without extensive contracting. By using private investigators, Monsanto is able to trace such farmers after soil tests are conducted on their farms for gene detection (Shuster, 2012).

The seed patents play a big role in Monsanto’s business as the company makes a lot of money from lawsuits and fines against farmers who are found guilty of seed patent infringement. Recently, Monsanto is involved in a court case over the aspect of exhaustion in its patents. The accused argued that like other patents subject to exhaustion doctrine, Monsanto’s seed patent should as well apply only to the original seeds and not the replicated ones. However, Monsanto emphasizes that it owns patent rights in a genetically modified plant (Shuster, 2012). Additionally, the fact that it is a self-replicating living organism is irrelevant because the patent rights are independently applicable to all generations of the seeds embodying the invention, and therefore, any farmer who creates a new generation of genetically modified seeds, without an authorization from Monsanto, directly infringes on Monsanto’s seed patent and is liable to prosecution. This means that Monsanto excludes exhaustion in their patents. Nonetheless, the main reason Monsanto gives for its seed patenting is the profit they get from their patents, which serves as an incentive for them to further develop more seed technology, which farmers continue to use (Shuster, 2012).

To determine the morality and ethics in this case of Monsanto, different moral and ethics frameworks such as social justice framework can be used. According to Young, (1990, p.25) when social justice is present, there is no oppression or monopolization by institutions. Therefore, elements of monopolization and oppression must be viewed under the social justice lenses. The case of Monsanto does not allow for the distributive paradigm between farmers and the company, yet distributive paradigm is the pillar of the social justice theory. According to this framework, there must be a morally proper way in which benefits and burdens are equally distributed among members of the society (Rawls 1999). In the case of seed patenting, the biochemical companies enjoy all the benefits, while leaving the burdens to the farmers. In contrast, the deontology framework of ethics does not base on the consequences of actions, rather, moral judgment lies in the type of actions and motives of the actors. Therefore, the outcome of one’s actions cannot be used to evaluate one’s morality since consequences are not pre-planned by people (Rawls 1999). Therefore in the case of Monsanto, the consequences of its seed patenting, especially to the farmers is overlooked as this is beyond their control. Monsanto just patented its seeds, but did not plan for this action to result in adverse consequences on the side of farmers. Therefore, this framework justifies Monsanto’s position on seed patenting.

Other Global Actors

The US Government

At the end of 2010, it was quite evident that there was going to be a change of course in the whole issue of seed patenting, which continues to raise many controversies (“Nature” 2010). This came after the US government declared to act towards limiting organism patenting in the country, hence ending the support organism patenting received from the government. This decision of the US government based on the argument that naturally occurring genes cannot be patented, as patents are only meant for independent innovations and discoveries (Ikuta 2009). Therefore, modification or alteration of a gene to a new form is not innovation, and does not guarantee patenting. Most biotechnology companies reacted to this government move by claiming that this decision was going to affect the companies adversely, considering that their researches get motivation from the profits earned from the seed patents. However, this government decision would not apply to all gene patents, as specific unique cases would be exempted. Nonetheless, this came as a surprise to all biotechnology companies, as they had enjoyed the support of the government in issues concerning their gene patents (“Nature” 2010).

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

FAO’s panel of eminent expert on ethics in food and agriculture held their final session in 2007, where they addressed vital issues in global agriculture practice. The report of this session was released in 2009, and bears important insights as it covers a variety of issues, including both ethical and moral, in the food and agriculture sector (“FAO” 2009). Concerning organism patenting, the panel observed that most nations through their laws have realized the relationship between organism patenting and morality. The panel supported the fact that these two factors, patents and morality, are always in a conflict. Quoting one of their articles, it is attributed that the TRIPS agreement allows members of the WTO not to patent inventions that are aimed at protecting; morality in a country, economic exploitation, human life, plant life, health, or the environment. Additionally, this agreement is against the patenting of living organisms. The panel argued that organism patenting is morally wrong and unacceptable. This is because this case allows for IPRs to be attached to organisms occurring naturally in the environment, and which are not necessarily invented (“FAO” 2009). Similarly, the panel thought that organism patenting leads to the development of different private monopolies, which negatively serve to hinder the public from freely enjoying the naturally occurring organisms in the environment. They generally term organism patenting as immoral, unethical, and unacceptable, and cannot be justified in whichever case. Conclusively, the panel agreed that FAO is responsible for talking different governments into assessing cautiously the ethical and moral implications of organism patenting in their countries. FAO is also charged with the dissemination of knowledge and awareness about the TRIPS Agreement in order to abate cases that arise because of organism patenting as this involves morally unacceptable subject matter, which is plants and animals (“FAO” 2009). According to this panel report, it was recommended that a series of ethical reviews be conducted on the issue of organism patenting. This involves cases where an undesirable dissemination of genes are claimed in patent applications, which may have adverse effects on the development and sustainability of agriculture. Additionally, if the acquired patents lead to development of technologies that are lethal to all organisms, as well as agricultural practices, then this is subject to ethical review. Ethical reviews will also apply to patented products that were discovered in nature and were not invented by the patent holder. Genetic patenting of any form as well as those patents involving variety of plants and prevent use of these plants by the public, will also be reviewed. Finally, ethical and moral reviews must be applied on patents that do not allow farmers to save and re-use seeds as it was practiced in the past (“FAO” 2009).

Oppositional Movement Represented by Opposition Activist, Ms. Vandala Shiva

Different environmentalist groups and individuals have expressed their outcry on the issue of seed patenting. Dr. Vandana Shiva is an environmentalist, who advocates for the revamping of the global agriculture and food systems (Shiva 2012). She is renowned for her intellectual contribution to issues regarding intellectual property rights, biodiversity, bioethics, biotechnology, genetic engineering, among other environment related fields. She uses her literature and activist campaigns as a medium of disseminating this information.

On the controversy surrounding seed patenting, Vandana holds that seed is the primary source of life for humans and other organisms, as it is holds the position of the producer in the food chain. In her view, seed patenting hands over the control of seeds from the hands of everyone else to the hands of specific individuals or groups. This translates in putting the freedom of people, the control of their food, and control of their lives into the care of a different person (Shiva 2012).

Vandana is greatly opposed to Monsanto’s unethical and unjust agricultural practices, including seed patenting. She attributes seed monopoly to a lethal practice that has caused the deaths of close to 250 000 Indian farmers through suicide. Vandana also points out the unethical actions of Monsanto in contaminating farmers’ seeds and crops, then suing them later for infringing on its patents. Seed patenting and genetic engineering has resulted in multiple problems today, which need to be addressed globally through a collective stoppage to seed patenting (Shiva 2012). Vandana urges more people who realize the seriousness of this matter to be part of the Global Movement on Seed Freedom. This way, collective efforts may pave way for the new policies that will condemn seed patenting, and give back the freedom and future of people from the seed patent owners (Shiva 2012). The utilitarianism framework can be used to describe the morality of seed patenting as echoed by Shiva. This framework is based on happiness and pain, and uses these as lenses for measuring morality of actions (MacIntyre 2007). Good actions that are moral must have happiness as their outcome. Both the actor experiences this happiness and the other parties involved. If the actor only experiences the happiness and other parties are hurt, then the action in perspective is described as an immoral act, since it does not lead to collective happiness (MacIntyre 2007). The fact that farmers are hurt, to the point of some of them committing suicide because of the adverse effects of seed patenting is a proof enough that seed patenting is a hedonistic practice. It only takes into account the “happiness” of the biochemical corporations, while neglecting and exploiting the farmers.

Greenpeace

Apart from the FAO, and the US, Government, another global player opposed to organism patenting is the Greenpeace, which is an international non-profit organization, interested in the global environmental aspects. With its headquarters in Amsterdam, Greenpeace has the goals that the earth remains capable of nurturing life in all biodiversity, and increase awareness on important issues such as deforestation, global warming, among other environmental issues on the globe. Greenpeace conducts researches, and is involved in lobbying, as well as direct actions for attainment of goals (“Greenpeace” 2012).

Greenpeace links genetic engineering in plant breeding with increased seed monopolies, noting that companies today are taking advantage of seed patenting to corporately control agriculture. Greenpeace relates seed patenting to the soaring seed prices and unjust restrictions of farmers. Greenpeace criticizes Monsanto for its dominance through the enforcement of its many patent rights. Seed patenting results in unethical issues as more farmers across the world face prosecution by international companies on seed patent infringement. Monsanto is widely criticized as it makes a lot of money from its patents. Nonetheless, Greenpeace is opposed to seed patenting because of the negative effects this has on farmers. These include monopolization of the seed market, farmers affected negatively in the course of patent litigation, reduction in the choices of farmers and their access to genetic resources, as well as the skyrocketing of seed prices. (“Greenpeace” 2012). Using the virtue ethics framework, the element of ethics in seed patenting can be evaluated. Unlike other moral frameworks, virtue ethics is based on the actor, and not actions. Here, the consequences of actions, the ethical duties, and rules are all overlooked, while attention is paid to the virtue, or moral character of the actor. Apart from the rightness or wrongness of actions, virtue ethics guides on the kinds of virtues people need to uphold. Virtue ethics strongly advocates for justice (MacIntyre 2007: MacIntyre 1996). Therefore, it is considered that Monsanto acts unjustly by prosecuting farmers and treating them unjustly due to its monopolization of the seed company. In fact, the act of monopolization itself is not a virtue but a vice, therefore this renders seed patenting as a non-virtuous practice.

Recommendations

The negative effects of seed patenting in agriculture today call for immediate changes in the sector. Since farmers are the worst hit, governments should amend the patent laws so that they consider both the farmers and biotechnology farmers equally. Farmers should not be punished for GMO contamination of their soils, as this is beyond their control. Additionally, farmers need to be compensated by biotechnology companies in case of GMO contamination of their previously GMO-free soils.

The environmentalist groups should collaborate in increasing people’s awareness of the seed-patenting situation. People then should be encouraged to use the more ecological past methods of farming. Past farming methods allow for the evolution and dissemination of agronomic knowledge, unlike the modern IPR system, which leads to personalization and profitability of information. Alternatively, the re-adoption of seed saving and seed sharing is important (Ikuta 2009). This enables the organic co-evolution of organisms and culture. This shift from chemical farming to organic farming will save farmers from exploitation by biotechnology companies.

Conclusion

Seed patenting, as seen is unethical and unacceptable as it gives more restrictions and less benefits to farmers. Compared to other alternatives, the GMOs, which result in organism patents, are harmful to environment and life. Seed patenting is unethical because it does not result in equal development in agriculture, instead; it only leads to the economic prosperity of monopolies, at the expense of farmers. Monsanto is regarded as greedy for money and power; therefore, maybe it is time people realized that the agricultural sector is in dire need of a revolution today. Monsanto continues to grow at an unimaginable rate, monopolizing the agricultural industry, and maneuvering the government to face limited regulations in their “inventions.” This keeps harming the environment and creates new health problems. People should be wise enough to appreciate and lobby for the technological development that will not ruin them in the end. If appropriate measures are not taken to address this situation, the global health and future will be in stake.

 

Works Cited

“FAO” 2009, Report of the Eminent Experts on Ethics in Food and Agriculture (Fourth Session,

26-28 November, 2007) Retrieved 2 December, 2012  <http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2043e/i2043e.pdf >

“Greenpeace” 2012, Genetic Engineering Enforces Corporate Control of Agriculture,

Retrieved 2 December, 2012 <http://www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/publications/agr

iculture/2010/CtCoGE-Patents.pdf).>

“Nature” 2010, US Government Wants Limits on Gene Patents, Retrieved 2 December, 2012

<http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101102/full/news.2010.576.html>

Ikuta, B 2009, Genetically Modified Plants, Patents, and Terminator Technology:  The

Destruction of the Tradition of Seed Saving. Ohio Northern University Law Review,

35(731-749).

MacIntyre, A 1996, A Short History of Justice, Simon & Schuster, London.

MacIntyre, A 2007, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, University of Notre Dame

Press, Indiana.

Rawls, J 1999, A Theory of Justice, Harvard University Press, Massachusetts.

Shiva, V 2012, Seed Freedom, Retrieved 2 December, 2012

<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dj8a0k_THCk >

Shuster, M 2012, Seeds of exhaustion: Monsanto is coming to the United States Supreme Court,

Retrieved 2 December, 2012

<http://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=fbb39ca4-264e-4460-b124-a2fa23675a02>

Young, M 1990, Justice and Politics of Difference, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.

 

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Culinary Eros in Contemporary Hispanic Female Fiction: From Kitchen Tales to Table Narratives

This article, written by Maite Zubiaurre employs the concept of food and cooking to develop its main theme. The author addresses how women, food, and cooking are represented in the different culinary Eros in the female fictions of contemporary Spain, and other parts of the world. Apart from Spain, the author argues that the process of cooking, eating, and digestion is highly sexualized even in the erotic arts and literature of other country origins. However, the author dwells on the importance of food, food preparation process, and the kitchen in Hispanic Eros literature by women.

Even though different erotica in different countries use food and kitchen to relay their messages, some of them fall out of agreement with the feminist perspective. Ironically, women develop most of these, yet some of them seem to be not aligned with the feminism expectations. This is primarily because of the way such literature bluntly portray women as sex objects. For instance, some erotica written for both men and women will portray women as an edible dessert after dinner. Their bodies shown covered with champagne or cream. Most feminists therefore find it hard to find the validity in the assumption that women equal food, as this in itself is belittling to the womenfolk. Feminists can also not make anything out of literature that portrays women negatively. Apart from being portrayed as objects in erotica literature, some literature has portrayed women as voracious eaters. This negative presentation of women is not acceptable in the feminist sphere.

The author compares and contrasts a variety of Hispanic erotic literature, which bears heavy culinary eroticism, in order to bring out the different portrayal and representation of women in the literature. However, great reference is made on Laura Esquivel’s 1989 novel, Like Water for Chocolate, which remains influential in the representation of culinary eroticism today. In this literature, unlike others, Laura used culinary eroticism, kitchen, and cooking process to bring out women as capable of liberation from male dominance in society. Only a few culinary erotica literature have a strong feminist approach as the one in Esquivel’s novel. In this literature, Esquivel portrays cooking as a process through which women discover, empower, and redefine themselves.

Maite, in this article also addresses the difference between “table narratives” and “kitchen tales”. The author argues that in table narratives, there is a more positive representation of women as compared to the kitchen tales. The author once more employs the example of a table narrative namely, Aphrodite. A Memoir of the Senses, to justify this claim. Here, women sitting at tables are portrayed as powerful and influential. Unlike most kitchen tales, in table narratives, women are not presented as food for satisfaction of men’s sexual hunger, neither are they shown as nurturing machines that live in the kitchen, with their lives revolving around cooking. This is because today, the kitchen is thought of as a marginalized area, which contributes to the insubordination of women, who become less powerful than men in society, by restricting them from the public sphere. In this article, the author achieves the theme quite clearly by comparing and contrasting as much literature on this issue as possible. What comes out clear is the relationship between women, kitchen, food, and cooking. All these aspects have a psychological connotation, which serves to influence the level of women empowerment in society. Additionally, various social evils directed toward women can be traced to these elements in society.

The author of this article is right on point in describing the symbolisms in the culinary Eros in contemporary female fiction. I agree with the author and to great lengths echo the sentiments in this article. The author has widely used a variety of female literature to back the argument in the article, which is more convincing. It is quite true that culinary practice may be used in erotica to deliberately misrepresent women in society. This mostly rises concerns in the feminist sphere as women dignity and integrity is at the heart of feminism.

Revolucion Interior Al Exterior: An Interview with Laura Esquivel

This is an interview between Loweinstein and Esquivel, the author of  Like Water for

 Chocolate. From this interview, one understands the importance of Esquivel’s book in the society today. For instance, her book is used in Psychotherapy so that patients can learn how to cry. In addition, the book content, including the images therein, is important in forging relationships between mothers and daughters, and as a frame of reference for personal issues.

It is also evident from this interview that Mexicans do not express their intimate feelings publicly, therefore their limited reality television talk shows. The loosening of social ties in society is as also well depicted. In the contemporary world, the economy has forced people to concentrate on moneymaking, and therefore there are limited chances of people getting together and sharing stories of life moments. The children today have been left to get their education from the television, as parents are busy searching for a living.

Laura, in her book, portrayed the family hierarchy quite differently. The woman is seen as dominant while men are presented as gentle. This is an element in feminism, where women are thought to be strong and influential. This is because of the important roles women play in the society, and especially the family, which is the basic unit of the society. Esquivel ties a lot of importance to the mothers in the world. She presents a woman as the head of family because of the roles women play in transmitting societal values in their children. Laura portrays a great feminist approach in both person and in writing, as she portrays the women in her book as revolutionists who struggle to rise above male domination in society.

The role of mother-daughter relationship is essentially brought out in Laura’s book. Both mother and their daughters are women and so this is of great importance to the feminine discourse. Mothers establish the close relationships with their daughters so that daughters grow up into women of integrity, just like their mothers. In this interview, it is quite clear that feminists then must invest in their daughters in order for the future feminism spirit to remain strong.

Esquivel discloses that the act of cooking is an act of love, which happens in the kitchen. Mixing different ingredients to get one thing; that is love. Transmission of emotions according to her, heightens this. Additionally, to her, cooking is the reversed role of the sexual role, whereby the man is the one on the receiving end. This is one of the reasons as to why she chose to include the culinary aspect in her feminine literature.

Nonetheless, this interview gives the reader an insight into Esquivel’s works. Being a feminist, she advocates for a revolution in how women are presented in society. from this one can deduce that the roles women play in the society are regarded as less influential. For instance, the act of cooking by women may not be appreciated much in society, yet Esquivel uses cooking to bring out its strong symbolism in the feminist sphere.

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Ethical and Unethical Behaviors

 

 

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30^th, November 2012

 

Factors that Influence Whether a Person Behaves Ethically or Unethically

 

Ethical behavior and unethical behavior are different aspects of behavior, which also vary from place to place. If a person exhibits ethical behavior, it means they uphold good conduct and acceptable morality. On the other hand, unethical behavior is whereby a person behaves in a manner that is not morally acceptable in society. In the work place, ethical behavior is manifest in professionalism. Therefore, professional behavior equally has its own code of ethics. Professional behavior requires one to portray high level of respect, integrity, and discretion in their job.

In a company, if one behaves ethically, it means that they are adhering to the rules and regulations set by the company. For one to be considered as acting ethically they must do the right thing despite what their colleagues or boss might think of them. The best interests of the company are considered when employees act ethically. In case of disagreements, one is supposed to disagree with their seniors ethically. In the office, it is unethical to talk about the seniors behind their backs. It is more ethical to face them and address the issue right on.

Unethical behavior is possible for employees or even their seniors. However, seniors are supposed to be employees’ example and so should behave ethically at all times. A manager may be termed unethical if they attempt to use coercion to make an employee perform a task or adhere to their orders against an employee’s will. In addition, corruption is an unethical behavior, which is highly discouraged at the work place. Employees should not disclose company secrets or receive bribes, as this is detrimental to the whole company. Generally, ethical behavior is about adhering to the standards that are set forth, maintaining integrity when it comes to the quality and type of work done, and by always advocating for the work that is being done (Deckop 2006).

Role of Managers in Encouraging Ethical Behavior in Multi-Cultural Organizations

In every company, each person has the role of adhering to the company’s set of rules and regulations, including abiding by the code of ethics of the company. However, managers of companies perform a higher job than the employees. Managers and supervisors are responsible for raising the employees’ awareness about the code of ethics. This way, the employees will have a full understanding of what the code of ethics expects of them so that they can adhere to it more easily. It is important for employees to have a clear understanding of the company’s ethical requirements, in order to put them into practice (Deckop 2006).

Multicultural organizations are the ones, which have employees of different cultural backgrounds. These employees mostly have different worldviews, values, and beliefs. These will therefore have different ways of acting and thinking, as their indigenous societies have cultured them. It can be hard for these employees to adapt to a different culture in the organization, different from the one they are used to. This is why such companies must have a harmonized code of ethics, which accommodates the various cultures of the employees. It is therefore the role of the managers to ensure that the structured code of ethics accommodates all the employees (Deckop 2006).

Normally, managers are charged with the overall management of the company. They therefore must ensure that the employees adhere to the company code of ethics. This way the managers will be performing their role of enhancing corporate behavior. Managers therefore need to be vigilant and active regarding matters to do with ethical and unethical behaviors in the company. They must supervise and keenly observe that all employees comfortably adhere to the code of ethics, in order to promote a uniform organizational culture.

 

Specific Ways Managers can Encourage Ethical Behavior

Organizational ethics is the concern of the human resources department in organizations. Thus human resource managers are the ones charged with ensuring the adherence to the corporate ethics. Managers today adopt a variety of ways in dealing with the emphasis of ethics in their organizations (Deckop 2006).

First, a manager can encourage ethical behavior by sanctioning those employees who exhibit unethical behavior. If this is done, the other employees will learn from their sanctioned colleagues, and therefore learn to always act ethically. This in turn motivates the employees to adhere to the code of ethics, lest they also are sanctioned.

Organizational ethics is an aspect of strategic management issue; therefore, most managers find it imperative to integrate this in the different tasks of the company. This should be fitted in the company’s tasks. For instance, managers need to ensure that all organizational tasks performed by employees are in an alignment with the company’s code of ethics. Team building activities, among others, must observe this (Deckop 2006).

In addition, managers should also undertake trainings for all the employees on the matter of organizational ethics. Since the code of ethics is the way through which organizational behavior is standardized, managers must invest in this as it is a worth investment. Possessing a code of ethics is the first step in the maintenance of a positive organizational culture. Therefore, managers ensure that ethics experts train the employees on ethics. Additionally, managers themselves lead by example. They uphold high ethical standards as the employees look up to them. Nonetheless, every person is responsible for ethical standards at the individual level as well as the organizational level.

 

Works Cited

Deckop, J 2006, Deckop Human Resource Management Ethics, IAP, London.

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The Pacification of the Primitive Tribes of the Lower Niger

Living with the Igbo in Nigeria, and having a considerable interaction with most natives of the tribes of the Lower Niger, I have wide knowledge on the life and cultures of these native tribes. These are Africans with a rich indigenous culture, which they still embrace, and their beliefs, values, and practices are highly traditional. My first-hand experience and interaction with these natives helped me discover so much about Africans, which most Europeans misconceive. Nonetheless, my varied experience and interaction with these natives opened my eyes to some of the European misconceptions about Africans.

Southern Nigeria is a delta with a high population and endowed with multiple physical features, including mangrove swamps and different rivers. The Igbo have a traditional political system, headed by a traditional head who must adhere to the cultural standards of the community, and ensure success of the community. Failure to live up to this resulted in dire consequences. For instance, one leader committed suicide after considering he had failed his community.

Despite their endowment of numerous natural resources, this community still languishes in poverty. They concentrate on their traditional practices and forget to open their eyes to advancement. “Among the Igbo the art of conversation is regarded very highly, and proverbs are the palm-oil with which words are eaten.” (Achebe 64). This shows the extent of their devout to their culture.

Comparing the Igbo to other parts of Africa, especially Congo, a few differences may be noted in their survival means. While those in Congo were preoccupied with moneymaking activities, the Igbo mainly concentrated on their community life and family. “The word ‘ivory’ rang in the air, was whispered, was sighed. You would think they were praying to it.” (Conrad 92) This shows the economic freedom of the Congolese relied on the ivory, which they highly valued.

Nonetheless, this is land of Africans, who are victims of tyranny from their own cultures. Their beliefs and values are the chains that tie them, impeding them from development, and instead, these chains link them with their ancestors, thus drawing them back to the days of their ancestors. There is beauty and richness in their environment, yet this, they have failed to harness for more development.

 

Works Cited

Achebe, Chinua. “Things Fall Apart.” London: Heinemann Press, 1958. Print.

Conrad, Joseph. “Heart of Darkness.” New York: ReadHowYouWant.com, 2009

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Revising and Editing

            There are vital differences between revising and editing, although most people mistakenly use these two terms interchangeably. Revision is quite complex as compared to editing. In revision, one has to have a different perspective of looking at their work. Alternatively, one may involve a second party in the revision process, so that revision is done basing on the questions and comments of the second reader. On the other hand, editing may involve the writer only, as the basic grammatical standards are of concern here. Nonetheless, good writing must take into account all these processes to ensure the paper is accurate and impeccable.

When revising a paper, one needs to focus beyond the simple grammar issues such as punctuation, spellings, and vocabulary use. Instead, revision must involve revisiting the paper and working on the weaknesses in the paper. First, one should ensure that the structure and organization of the paper is correct, with no component missing. The introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion must all be in place. Bearing the assignment topic in mind, one must read the paper to ensure the content of the writing marries the assignment topic. This is important to avoid irrelevance. The flow of ideas from topic to topic in the paper is also paramount during revision. One may also focus on the transitioning between paragraphs as an aspect that enhances flow of work. In addition, one must check that their ideas in the paper, as well as their arguments are in line with their thesis statement. Since revision is an involving process, one may need to re-write paragraphs to bring them to right desired standards.

 

Revising mainly serves the function of ensuring that the presentation of the writing to the audience is effective. This is why revision focuses on the readability of the writing, the clarity of the work, as well as the logic of the paper. Failure to focus on these during revision may lead to misrepresentation and misinterpretation of the ideas, irrelevance in the work, and generally a poor quality paper.

Editing, on the other hand takes a different focus on the paper. It mainly entails proofreading the work. In editing, grammatical errors such as spelling, common word mix-ups, punctuation, vocabulary, capitalization, and other mechanical problems are of interest. One reads their paper, paying attention to these areas. Possible grammatical errors are then identified and corrected on the paper. For effective editing, one should not rush through the process, as they might miss significant mistakes in the paper. One should also consider reading out the paper loud, as this could be a simpler way of identifying errors. However, one may also use spellcheckers and grammar checkers as a backup in their editing. The whole editing process must be performed with a lot of criticism to avoid leaving out errors. Editing is the last stage in writing, and serves to ensure clarity and conciseness of the work, and ensuring that the paper is on point, ready for presentation.

Revising and editing are crucial in the writing process. These are essential in sharpening one’s writing skills. When one makes it a routine to revise and edit their work before submission, they become more familiar with their writing flaws, and will eventually perfect them to become good writers. Every writer must therefore; revise and edit their work, as these two processes mark the boundary between good writers and poor writers. The major reasons to revise and edit one’s work are, to ensure clarity and quality of the paper and to enhance writing skills.

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The Changing Identities of Asian Americans

Asian Americans in the United States of America experience great diversity because of the multiculturalism in the U.S.A. This is a minority group with high group consciousness, which has enhanced its survival and adaptability. This group consciousness roots from their perceived social context and racial position. Their racial identification over the historical past has been influential in their political attitudes and behavior. In addition, the U.S.A immigration policy is responsible for creation of racial stereotypes and tropes. Asian Americans have managed to create and strengthen their social, cultural, and political identities over time. As compared to the past, the Asian Americans today show high independence level. However, their historical past, government policies, and their patterns of migration are influential in their identities today.

          The cultural identity of Asian Americans is largely shaped by America’s multiracialism. Today, Asian Americans are developing their own distinct subculture, an identity, different from the dominant American culture. This was also the case in the past years. However, there are concerns that Americanization is making most Asian American youth to give up their heritage, as the American culture engulfs them. Some youth have abandoned their language, their histories, and their cultures in pursuit of inclusion and legitimacy (Kurashige and Murray 420-421). Inferiority complex based on their physique has resulted in self-hate. The males desire to marry white women, while females attempt changing their physique to reach the standards of white females. However, the past formation of the Yellow Power Movement, comprising students and young adults, was useful in turning this situation around. This movement mainly targeted Asian American youth, who are more vulnerable to heritage abandonment. Youth are encouraged to have self-acceptance, for the strengthening of their cultural identity in the U.S.A. this shows the level at which Asian Americans are committed to sustaining their cultural identity (Kurashige and Murray 421).

          Model minority has played a key role in shaping the social identity of Asian Americans over the years. Americanization did not influence Asian Americans in the past. Therefore, they were neglected, and considered a deviant group. In addition, they were considered economically “fit” because of their hardworking nature and love for education. With regard to gender aspect, Asian American women experienced sexist oppression in the Asian American revolutionary movements. This resulted in women’s movements to protest male chauvinism, through development of feminist movements, which also addressed concerns of fellow Asian American females (Kurashige and Murray 448). Additionally, in the early 1960s Asian Americans, headed by their group activists pioneered a social revolution. These mainly included the Korean Americans and the Filipino Americans, who called on all other Asian Americans to embrace a common struggle that would outdo white racism. They also sought to instill a sense of social pride in all Asian Americans through by organizing artistical, theatrical, and musical programs. They also published Asian American magazines and journals for self-expression. Their various radical political groups helped them voice their social and political concerns (Kurashige and Murray 419).

Racial group consciousness and past political acts are important in the political identity of Asian Americans. Today, this group can participate in the campaigns that promote one of their group members. They have considerable influence in the American politics as they form a strong voting bloc. They are more influential in Los Angeles and San Francisco, where they are highly concentrated. Asian American political candidates have received support from members of their group. Shared characteristics, including, race and ethnicity, boosts solidarity and familiarity in the group. Asian Americans, because of solidarity, have engaged in group-based political actions since the historic times. This mainly was to address incidences of racial discrimination and injustices. 1960s and 1970s saw the height of political activism and solidarity by Asian Americans as they fought against internal colonization in America. Students advocated for Asian American Studies, activists denounced Vietnam War and American imperialism abroad. During and after WW2, the Japanese Americans were hit hardest by discrimination as most were evicted, put up in camps, and denied American citizenship. These and other historical injustices affecting Asian Americans prompted the Yellow power movement to spearhead the economic and political freedom of Asian Americans (Kurashige and Murray 444-447).

In conclusion, Asian Americans portray a high group consciousness, which helps them keep together in an alien culture. Their social, political, and cultural identities have experienced considerable changes throughout history. Past discriminations and injustices on this group have gradually changed their identities. While they were discriminated against in the past, they have risen to demand for equality today. In addition, the yellow power movement has played a key role in the political, cultural, and social freedom of the group. Their culture, though affected by multiculturalism, is still of value to them and so today, they struggle to sustain their heritage despite being a minority group in a larger American culture. Nonetheless, the Asian American identity seems to strengthen over time.

 

Works Cited

Kurashige, Lon and Murray, Alice. Major Problems in Asian American History: Documents and

Essays. London: Houghton Mifflin, 2003. Print.

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University of Wollongong in Dubai

Postgraduate Program

 

Annotated Bibliography

Articles Review

 

Submitted to: Dr. Catherine Todd

 

Done by: Alia Ibrahim

Student ID: 4115132

  

Saturday, 14 December 2012

Table of Contents

Introduction. 3

Implementing Successful Quality Management 3

Benefits of Offering Childcare in the Workplace for Employees. 4

Employee Perception on Commitment Oriented Work System; Effects on Trust and Perceived Job Security  4

Equality at Work? Workplace Equality, Flexible Working Arrangements, and the Quality of Work  5

Promises, Promises: “Choices For Women” In Canadian and American Child Care Policy Debates  6

Family Responsibilities and Women’s Working Lives. 7

International Policies Toward Parental Leave and Child Care. 8

Retaining Women in the Workforce. 8

Family Provision at the workplace and their Relationship to Absenteeism, Retention, and Productivity of Workers: Timely Evidence from Prior Data. 9

Restructuring and women workers in Australian home care. 10

Conclusion. 10

References. 11

 

Introduction

Male and female employees have different needs that their employers should meet to ensure employee job satisfaction and productivity, which is important to the company’s performance. Women’s needs are more diverse than those of men. With regard to the position of women in society and their gender roles, female employees generally, will work best in an environment that allows flexibility, to balance between work and family. Seasoned employers ensure this by implementing work policies that put this into consideration. This annotated bibliography therefore, reviews different sources that highlight the relationship between women needs and work productivity, including policies by employers and government, which consider needs of female employees in their workplace.

1.      Implementing Successful Quality Management

This article demonstrates the implementation of a successful Quality Management System (QMS) by written and controlled procedures. A QMS prevents failures involving the supply chain, the brand, and customers, since it forms a basis for major company audits. The authors discuss four main steps involved in development of an effective QMS. First, statistical tools, and preferably a flow chart or a process map, is vital as it provides information on the path a product follows from the manufacturing stage. This becomes a control plan after its approval by quality assurance department. Secondly, a Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FEMEA), is an advanced stage of product quality planning, which helps in identifying possible failures, and a FEMEA team may oversee the process. Systems validation protocols work to eliminate defects and lower the level of variation in the process of manufacturing. Finally, current good manufacturing practices (cGMP) is necessary for manufacturing companies to ensure their products meet the market requirements, as this will develop their product identity and quality. Therefore, companies must be develop and sustain a cGMP. Nonetheless, an effective QMS may fail or succeed, depending on the level of commitment of employees and management of a company.

In the article, authors explain a comprehensive process of developing an effective QMS. However, they fail to articulate a solid definition of QMS. In addition, they do not relate this directly to vital management issues in the contemporary workplace. Similarly, they do not address QMS as part of the organizational culture and the impact of a QMS to employee job satisfaction. Finally, the authors do not carry out a research to back up their explanations; this could have increased their work’s validity. For this reason, this area needs further research to ascertain the principles involved in QMS application as well as its impact on employees attitude. Nonetheless, this article bases on QMS and therefore, breaking it further will reveal the management practices that ensure satisfaction of employees’ needs, including the female employees, with special attention to their childcare issues.

2.      Benefits of Offering Childcare in the Workplace for Employees

This article explains the relationship between workplace childcare provision and productivity of female employees. The author argues that, companies, which offer on-site childcare, register higher productivity than those that do not provide on-site childcare. The argument behind this is that, female employees concentrate more on their work when they are provided childcare at their workplace, as this lessens their worries and problems associated with childcare. Their motivation and loyalty levels increase, thus increasing their job performance. Subsequently, these motivated female employees will boost the overall company productivity.

A major limitation of this article is failure to link the assumptions made with a research. Instead, the author presents a generalized assumption, which lacks practical evidence. Similarly, the author does not use secondary sources; neither does he employ a case study. Nonetheless, this article still makes valid points, as it is true that if childcare is provided at the workplace, most female employee needs will have been dealt with, thus boosting their motivation and productivity in their work, consequently enhancing company productivity.

3.      Employee Perception on Commitment Oriented Work System; Effects on Trust and Perceived Job Security

This article presents a research on a Dutch employment company, to establish the impact of Human Resource Management (HRM) on some of the competitive advantages in a company. The study mainly based on individual employee levels in the agency. In this view, the relationship between HR systems and job security and employee trust is established. The research findings showed that high level of job security and employee trust results when there is a positive employee inclusion, employee training and development, sharing of information, and support by direct supervision.

The methodology used in this study was the questionnaire technique. Questionnaires were distributed to all the 4 500 permanent employees of Flex company in Netherlands. The questions in the questionnaire sought to establish the opinions of all senior and junior employees concerning the issues related to human resource management. This included specific information on aspects of training and development of employees, sharing of information, salaries, and employee inclusion. The results of the study revealed that high scores on information sharing, training and development support by supervisors, and employee participation showed a positive relationship with job security. For instance, managers and other senior employees were less worried about their jobs, while the shopfloor employees were the most worried about their job.

The major limitation of the study is that it relied on only one source for data collection, which is the Flex Company, a big firm in the Netherlands. In addition, data evaluation included a large data set. This is problematic as it results in generalizations. The research was also one-sided, as it focused on the employees’ side alone, seeking their attitudes, and paid less attention to the management practices of the company. Research in the HRM field should focus on a company’s HRM practices. Therefore, future research in this area should focus on more than one company alone, and be extended to gather data from different companies in the Netherlands. Additionally, it should consider findings from other studies conducted on the topic, to reach more substantiated conclusions. Nonetheless, this research proves that a commitment oriented work system increases employees’ trust and perceived job security.

4.      Equality at Work? Workplace Equality, Flexible Working Arrangements, and the Quality of Work

This is a study conducted on the Irish labor force to determine how policies at the workplace influence flexibility and equality at the workplace. In this research, there is use of work policies of different Irish companies. Mainly, the data collected by ESRI, in a previous national survey on over 5 000 Irish employees was reviewed to arrive at results. The flexibility aspect of this research takes into account mainly the female employees. The authors conclude that work policies with childcare provision and high flexibility works in retaining more female employees.

The study findings established that equality policies are more common in public organizations and in big corporations with employee associations, and are rare in private organizations. In addition, there was an establishment of a correlation between equity policies and work flexibility, as these two are directly related, and result in low stress levels among employees, thus ensuring employee job satisfaction. The results also show that flexibility in work is highly gendered as more women engaged in job sharing and part-time jobs. However, each form of flexibility employed had different effects on the employees. Part-timers earned less than full-timers, but with low stress levels. Homeworking led to higher stress levels but more earnings, while job sharing increased autonomy and led to more stress in men. Generally, these findings show that the implementation of flexible working arrangements by organizations is done to suit the organization’s needs and not employee needs. However, flexibility favors women employees more, as these have many obligations in society, which need time. This calls for further research to clarify further, how work organization influences employees and their families

5.      Promises, Promises: “Choices for Women” In Canadian and American Child Care Policy Debates

This source provides a comparison of the Canadian and American childcare policies, passed by their governments in the early 1980s. The author argues that Canada is more developed in its welfare than the U.S.A. Unlike America, Canada offers paid maternity and parental leaves, in addition to the presence of a public health insurance system. The author studies the childcare policies of these two countries by tracing the major Acts in government legislation of the two countries, starting early 1980s. Additionally, the author takes a feministic approach in addressing the issues affecting working mothers in these countries.

This study shows that women working in an organization not acting on the childcare provision are influenced by the culture that embraces full-time working. It was determined that their decisions primarily based on the degree to which their personal relationships are affected, which in turn affect their overall job performance. The author emphasizes that the relationship between childcare and female employees’ performance needs to be put into consideration during the enactment of policies at the workplace. Additionally, women need to be given a freedom of choice concerning children’s care. According to the author, this right of women to choose their preferred childcare mode was promised to American women but the government has not addressed it yet. In addition, currently, Canada and America need to restructure their childcare policies to integrate wholly the needs of infant and preschool-aged children.

This research concludes that organizations are negatively influenced when working mothers come under the pressure of balancing work and family life. The failure of these organizations to offer effective childcare policies to female employees results in their low productivity, as the affected women work under increased stress and fail to deliver to their capacity. Therefore, it can be argued that the implementation of effective childcare policies helps female employees to be more at ease and concentrate on their work, thus increasing their productivity. However, the author sees a bleak future for welfare in America and Canada, as America is becoming more restrictive through creation of limiting policies, while Canada is greatly cutting on its social spending. Therefore, in future, employment practices and policies that integrate women’s needs may not be further adopted.

6.      Family Responsibilities and Women’s Working Lives

Women’s diverse responsibilities in their families and in the corporate world are brought under scrutiny in this article. The authors use the case of Australia to show how women in the Australian labor force juggle between work and family, and how the government policies affect the balance between career and family for the female employees in Australia. Additionally, the effects of women’s role in the family on their career life and socio-economic status are also explained in relation to government policies and work practices.

The authors in their study use statistics from the Australian Bureau of Statistics to determine the percentage of married women in the Australian labor force, the amount of time these women spend on domestic duties, the time they spend with their families, and the Australian government policies on childcare. It is from these statistics, that the authors draw their inferences. The results show that the Australian government’s childcare policies have helped ease pressures of female employees. In addition, more Australian women are getting into the labor force; however, their role in the family remains, yet today, they are still paid lower salaries than their male counterparts. This has led to most women quitting their jobs at the peak of their career life, to concentrate on their families.

In the article, the authors review different policies at the economic and social levels and pay close attention to the specific ones that help address the need of women to balance between work and family. However, the authors do not address work practices, or the influence of employers in policy implementation processes. Additionally, the study is conducted on Australian women only, and therefore, these results cannot to apply to other countries. Nonetheless, the authors have effectively addressed the effects of women’s place in society, including their responsibilities, to the achievement of their social and economic goals. Women’s domestic roles are an impediment to their advancement in their career life. Therefore, better policies should be put in place to help address this, as women are contributors to the national economy.

7.      International Policies toward Parental Leave and Child Care

The differences in international childcare policies and how their provisions impact on the job performance of the female employees to whom these were mainly designed for, is discussed in this article. The policies involving childcare, parental leaves and early childhood benefits in ten industrial nations found in Europe and North America are used in this study. The author observes differences in these policies in each country. However, special attention is shifted to the U.S.A, which is regarded as a poor performer in this sector.

It is established that, women, regardless of their good academic and professional qualifications, and a steady rise in the labor force, increasingly resign from their jobs due to the mounting pressure of balancing between their families and work. According to the authors, this decision is highly influenced by lack of the implementation of social and childcare provisions in their workplaces. This research aimed at promoting good practice and positive actions that promote reconciliation between the family or personal life of female employees and their career life. This is through a call to eliminate all forms of inequalities as well as gender stereotypes in organizations. The author recommends that countries should offer limited parental leaves and plenty of childcare benefits to ensure that women do not give up on their career life.

The research has not considered the integration of balance between the childcare policies and the competitive advantage and benefit for the mother and for all those with whom it relates (for children, the partners of female employees, and the professional relationships). However, the author notes that a key aspect in the professional lives of many people, and not just women is related to the choice of having children. Companies and employers are still finding it hard to manage the different cultural and organizational barriers that occur in these contexts.

8.      Retaining Women in the Workforce

The authors analyze female workforce retention and strategies that an organization undertakes to provide better organizational support in easing out their work responsibilities. This is through a survey in Australia. They seek to establish reasons behind the low number of women in the Australian workforce. Data collection was through questionnaires answered by employees in all levels of companies, including both private and public. Additional information was sourced from the database of Australian Institute of Management. More than 3 000 responses were analyzed.

Results showed that although the childcare policies and benefits of Australia are better than those of most countries, they have not managed to retain women in the workforce. Unlike male executives, for highly qualified women, the double burden of work and family continues to be the biggest career obstacle, both by an operational and economic perspective. Maternity and childcare issues have the direct impact on the women facing pregnancy. The issue of preference of either family or work plays a significant role in the decision making process especially if a woman is not well established in the career. The author identifies one of the most significant trends; that usually instead of striving for childcare provision, women seek help from their parents and rely on the relatives to meet their childcare needs, meaning, state intervention lacks.

A conclusion reached by the author, is that the legislative regulation of labor must be supplemented by legislative safeguards concerns. Time spent with the family needs to be adjusted to the work schedule, and be treated as an independent value, as there are more chances that work stress can take over. The importance of paid work is not always enough to allow people to take care of their families, especially children, and spend sufficient time with them. Therefore, the Australian government needs to restructure the childcare policies to address the challenges women face in their careers today. However, these findings cannot be applied to different countries, as they are specific to Australia.

9.      Family Provision at the workplace and their Relationship to Absenteeism, Retention, and Productivity of Workers: Timely Evidence from Prior Data

This study establishes the effects of childcare and family leave provided by employers, on employee absenteeism and the overall productivity of an organization. The Australian Workplace Industrial Relation Survey is the major source of data for this study. The results of the study showed that workplaces that provide on-site childcare and a family leave, register the least level of absenteeism. Those that do not provide on-site childcare and family leave had the highest absenteeism rate. Subsequently those with these policies were more productive than those that did not have the policies. Therefore, the study shows the importance of childcare and family leave policies in organizations.

The limits of this study include its lack of a clear definition of workplace. This in the study is defined as “a single physical area…” It becomes problematic when the study faces multilocation organizations. Additionally, by using secondary data, the researcher lacked personal information of the subjects, such as age, and marital status, which could have had a different effect on the study process. The research ignores the employer’s perspective of not being able to implement the childcare policies. Nonetheless, with the few flaws, the study still presents a relevant trend in Australia, similar to other such studies in the country.

10.  Restructuring and Women Workers in Australian Home Care

The implementation of childcare provision and effects on job performance of female employees is presented in this article, based on the restructuring of female employees. This research involves female employees in an Australian home care in the perspective of providing them a work and family life integration. Data was collected through interviews and questionnaires. This research facilitates the understanding of why, in some companies, managers do enable their employees to have the opportunity of balancing their work and family life. Such opportunities include awards and benefits to employees. The authors argue that these should integrate needs of female employees to ensure productivity of an organization. The findings indicated no home helps in Western Australia were given awards or benefits. In addition, more women preferred a skills-related career path. This research was performed in the early 1990s, and may not apply much to the present generation. It is also conducted in Australia, therefore, being limited. However, this still considers childcare provision by employers as boosting company productivity.

Conclusion

The above sources are effective in addressing the limitations women face in their careers because of their position in society. Through various researches, these offer evidence of this scenario in society, and possible interventions. Women continue to face challenges in balancing between career and family. This issue has persisted in society, owing to the women’s position in society. Women equally contribute to the world economy, so, if this challenge lacks redress, more women will give up career, putting the economy at risk. Better childcare and benefits at the government and employers’ level will intervene. Cost reduction for childcare expenses is also vital. The work policies implemented should be effective in their support of female employees. In addition, employers can offer on-site childcare for women at the workplace, to reduce absenteeism, thus boosting company productivity. These are influential in ensuring the retention of women in the labor force, despite the multiple expectations the society has of them.

References

1. Butler, G & Dobert, D (2012). Implementing Successful Quality Management, 2012-10-03, http://www.manufacturing.net/articles/2012/05/implementing-successful-quality-management
2. Roberts, E (2010). Benefits of offering childcare in the workplace for employees, October, 16, 2012,http://www.helium.com/items/1921930-child-care-center-child-care-employers-employees-companies-company-insurance-mothers-children
3. Boselie, P. Hesselink, M. Paauwe, J. Wiele, T (2001, January). Employee perception on commitment oriented work system effects on trust and perceived job security
4. O’Connell, P. and Russell, H (2005). Equality at Work? Workplace Equality, Flexible Working Arrangements, and the Quality of Work. The Equality Authority: Dublin, http://www.equality.ie/Files/Equality%20at%20Work.pdf
5. Teghtsoonian, K (1996). Promises, promises: “choices for women” in Canadian and American child care policy debates. Feminist Studies,  http://www.jstor.org/stable/3178249
6. Siobhan E. Austen & Elisa R. B (2000). Family Responsibilities and Women’s Working Lives, Women’s Economic Policy Analysis Unit  Curtin University of Technology, Women’s Economic Policy Analysis Unit, http://business.curtin.edu.au/files/WEPAU_DP-08_Family_Responsibilities_and_Women_s_Working_Lives.pdf
7. Waldfogel, J (2001). International policies toward parental leave and child care. The Future of Children, http://futureofchildren.org/futureofchildren/publications/docs/11_01_06.pdf
8. Leigh, F (2008). Retaining Women in the Workforce, Australian Institute of Management, http://www.aim.com.au/research/AIM_retaining_women.pdf
9. Brandon, P. & Temple, J (2006). Family Provision at the workplace and their Relationship to Absenteeism, Retention, and Productivity of Workers: Timely Evidence from Prior Data, Australian Journal of Social Issues http://extension.unh.edu/Family/documents/workfamily.pdf

 

10. Baldock, C. V., & Mulligan, D (1999). Restructuring and women workers in Australian home care. Resources for Feminist Research, http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Restructuring+and+women+workers+in+Australian+home+care.-a030045724

 

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