Category: Samples

 

Consumer Behaviour:

Pre-packaged Salads: What Explains Their Popularity?

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22^nd, January 2013

Today, the pre-packaged salads have become more popular in the market as even more people consume them. There are various reasons that can account for this situation. These reasons are in form of external and internal factors that have made the pre-packaged salads popular. Internal factors mainly involve those factors that determine a consumer’s perception of them, and what their ideal image is. These factors are influenced by the consumer themselves as individuals. Therefore, the kind of lifestyle one chooses to lead will determine their decision to purchase pre-packaged salad or not.  Currently, many people are concerned with healthy living and healthy eating. Therefore, most will prefer to spend on salads than on fast foods, which are unhealthy. In addition, those who want to obtain their ideal self-image of a slim physique will also make a choice of what to purchase depending on their goals. These will prefer salads due to their nutritional value, and the fact that these are healthy to eat (Solomon, Zaichkowsky & Polegato, 2011).

External factors influencing sale of pre-packaged salads include family decision and influence or opinions of groups. Some families have working mothers who do not have sufficient time to spend in the kitchen preparing salads; therefore, pre-packaged salad comes in handy. In addition, most students lack time for the kitchen, so, they will prefer to buy pre-packaged salad as a timesaving strategy. The factor of buying and disposing mainly affects single consumers who cannot buy and prepare salad for a single meal, as most will be disposed, thus going to waste. Therefore, such consumers will buy the pre-packaged salad, which comes in different quantities, and which does not go bad easily when it is left over (Solomon, Zaichkowsky & Polegato, 2011).

It is more likely that the sale of pre-packaged salads will continue to grow in the coming years. This is because people are continuously being made aware of healthy eating for better lives. Many people are therefore, drifting from fast foods and processed foods to the more natural foods, including vegetables and fruits. In addition, research shows that most young women are getting an education, therefore, most future mothers will be working mothers, with knowledge in healthy eating, thus these are more likely to purchase pre-packaged vegetables, because of its convenience and health value. To increase the sale of pre-packaged vegetables, the concerned companies need to invest in more advertising. This is to make more consumers knowledgeable about the pre-packaged vegetables, and to popularize pre-packaged salads and vegetables. Additionally, these companies should avoid using genetically modified crops.

The decision to buy pre-packaged vegetables is largely influenced by the consumer’s economic status. Vegetables and fruits have a higher cost than most foods; therefore, if one is not economically stable, they might not afford a consistent supply of fresh fruits and vegetables. This especially affects those families with only one parent as the breadwinner, or a single mother with children. Affording a consistent supply of vegetables and fruits for the whole family might become strenuous. On the other hand, families with both parents as breadwinners will not mind the high cost of the vegetables, as they can comfortably afford (Solomon, Zaichkowsky & Polegato, 2011).

            In order to identify the reasons why some consumers do not buy pre-packaged vegetables, one has to carry out a research among a representative population. This should be a face-to-face interview for trusted results. Most responses would point out to the high price of the vegetables compared to the cheaper fast foods. Therefore, basing on the economic status of a person, one may tell whether they consume or do not consume pre-packaged vegetables. In addition to face-to-face interviews, questionnaires could be supplied to various points, such as fast food joints, where most of this type of consumer will be easily found.

References

Solomon, M., Zaichkowsky, J. & Polegato, R. (2011). Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having,

and Being, 5^th Ed, Toronto, ON: Pearson Education Canada.

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The Challenge for Multinational Corporations in China: Think Local, Act Global – A Summary

            When multinational companies (MNCs) started to get entrance into the Chinese market, they were received with open arms. This includes them enjoying government privileges other local companies were not entitled to. The Chinese consumers also preferred goods from the MNCs, and not their local companies. This however, took a twist when in the year 2000, when the per capita GDP rose in the country to $1,000. The perception of the Chinese toward the MNCs changed further when China became a member of the World Trade Organization in 2001. Their earlier privileges were withdrawn, as even the Chinese started to embrace their local companies. Conditions ever since have become tight for the MNCs, as they are now expected to strictly adhere to the Chinese standards in their businesses.

Although the MNCs have positively contributed to the Chinese economy, much of their challenge lies in adapting to the local Chinese expectations in their business practice. For instance, being aware of the kind of advertisements to use, which will not be considered offensive by the local Chinese people. Most MNCs have difficulty understanding the expectations the Chinese have of them, since the Chinese are sensitive people, with respect to moral integrity and social prestige.

For the MNCs to survive in China, they must “think local and act global,” meaning they should conduct their business according to the local Chinese culture and norms, while maintaining international business standards. The MNCs must follow the Chinese laws, while respecting and not breaking the rules. In addition, Chinese observers hate it when MNCs buy local companies, only to destroy them. They view this as a liquidation tactic. Using China as a lab by MNCs is highly detested. More technology is tested in China considering that it is cheap, yet very few is transferred there. The Chinese view this as being used for MNCs selfish gains. If an MNC observes these, among other issues, it is likely to survive in China.

The MNCs in China therefore, have to adapt to the Chinese behavioural standard, even as it changes each year. This requires an MNC in China to have qualified managers that can balance between thinking local and acting global, for the good of the company. Conditions in China are tough, therefore, all MNCs have no choice but to adhere to the behavioural standard and perform their part as the Chinese expects them.

 

Works Cited

Park, Seung Ho and Vanhonacker, Wilfried. “The Challenge for Multinational Corporations in

China: Think Local, Act Global.” MITSloan Management Review, 48.4 (2007): 1-11.

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Microbiology

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22nd, January 2012

Great Microbiologists of the Past

It is without doubt that Edward Jenner was an influential microbiologist, considering the discoveries he made, and their effect on humankind today. Jenner’s work was the first of its kind in controlling infectious diseases using vaccination. People today still remember him for discovering and promoting vaccination to eradicate smallpox. However, Jenner is just one among many other microbiologists who have made significant discoveries that are also important to the contemporary society. Therefore, it is not just to bestow all credit to Jenner, when there are other microbiologists who made significant contributions to this field. In fact, some microbiologists made even greater discoveries than those of Jenner.

Apart from Jenner, another one of the most influential microbiologists of all time is Robert Koch, who is even referred to as “the father of microbiology.” Just like Jenner, Koch made important discoveries in microbiology, and this makes him deserve credit as well. His discovery was more important as it offered a solution to a problem that was facing people in that particular period. During the 19^th Century, there were two major killer diseases of cholera and tuberculosis. Cholera was incurable, and was even nicknamed, “king cholera.” On the other hand, Tuberculosis made people vomit white substance as their lungs disintegrated. This led people to nickname it, “white death.” People had given up on finding the cure to these diseases, which continued to take lives. However, with Koch’s discovery, humankind had a reason to smile again, when he discovered a remedy for these diseases. Koch lived in an era where people believed that diseases were caused by breathing “bad” air. However, with Koch’s discovery, came the enlightenment of the masses about pathogens and hygiene, which influence diseases. This revelation is more important even than the cure of disease, because if people take heed and practice good hygiene, they will avoid catching many diseases. Therefore, Jenner provided a cure for smallpox, while Koch offered both curative and preventive strategies to disease control (Merril & Timmreck, 2006).

Margaret was another influential microbiologist, who was an expert in the development and standardization of vaccines. She is remembered for having advanced the fight against killer diseases such as whooping cough, typhoid, cholera, anthrax, conjunctivitis, and meningitis. Apart from identifying the cause of whooping cough, Margaret also developed an improved vaccine for the disease. She was also the first woman to be in charge of the lab the NIH. Margaret also served as a World Health Organization consultant for cholera, in addition to being a leader in the standardization of vaccines. Margaret is also remembered for having come up with a remedy for killer disease that had claimed lives of millions of children. During her era, whooping cough was the leading cause of infant deaths. Margaret’s discovery was a milestone in the health department, as well as the country’s economy, as children are the future nation, and without them, a nation is as good as having no future (Merril & Timmreck, 2006).

Microbiologists are important professionals in society today. The contemporary microbiologists employ some of the past microbiologists’ scientific principles, which act as a foundation for their practice today. The role of microbiologists today keep evolving each day, as humankind experience new forms of diseases such as helicobacter, and new phenomena such as bio-terrorism, which they have to solve. However, these still use the medical knowledge of past microbiologists to diagnose and treat old diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis. Therefore, both past and modern microbiologists should be appreciated equally as they all contribute positively to the field of microbiology today.

 

 

The 2009 H1N1 Flu Virus (Swine Flu) Epidemic in the United States

Throughout history, different epidemics have hit different parts of the world and claimed many human lives. In United States of America, different epidemics have affected the nation and claimed many lives at some stages in history. However, the most recent epidemic to hit was the H1N1 Flu Virus. This was experienced in April 2009, and claimed close to 4,000 lives. Those who had contracted the virus were 22 million, while those who needed to be hospitalized were close to 100,000. Worldwide, the disease claimed approximately 16,000 lives (“New York Times,” 2013).

This swine flu was caused by a new strain of H1N1 virus, which comprised of human influenza, swine, and avian viruses. Normally, swine flu affects pigs and those people who had close contact with pigs. However, this kind of swine flu affected even those people who did not have close contact with pigs. This flu was first detected in Mexico, but crossed borders to reach America and other parts of the world, including the United Kingdom. Therefore, people travelling from one country to another were instrumental in the spread of the virus (Macnair, 2013).

Swine flu can be caused or contracted in a variety of ways. First, it is important to note that this flu is highly contagious. It does spread in the same way as the other ordinary flu. People who are infected with swine flu should be isolated so that they do not pass the disease to the healthy people. Infected people cough, sneeze, and release mucus droplets in the air, which contain the virus. If an uninfected person gets into contact with these droplets, they automatically catch the disease as well. What is more devastating is that, a person who has H1N1 virus in its window period, without symptoms, is still capable of infecting other people. This window period however, takes a total of seven days. However, children can be contagious to up to ten days (“New York Times,” 2013).

When this pandemic broke out, there were various ways the health department dealt with this to control further deaths. Mainly, the affected people were hospitalized. In the hospitals, these were treated using some of the antiviral drugs used to treat seasonal cold. Examples of some of the most effective antiviral drugs in treating swine flu include Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and zanamivir (Relenza). These antiviral drugs have the effect of reducing the severity of swine flu as well as cutting short the length period of swine flu. Although this curative measure was employed, it did not work out effectively, as more deaths were experienced. Nonetheless, it significantly reduced the number of deaths. After this pandemic, most Americans were encouraged to get a H1N1 vaccination, as a preventive measure of future H1N1 virus epidemics. This vaccination is in the form of flu shots, or nasal spray flu vaccine. These virus vaccine forms help the bodies learn how to counter the real H1N1 viruses when they attack. Public health education through the media and other avenues also played an important role in educating the masses about the precaution to take during such an epidemic, to prevent further spread of the virus (Macnair, 2013).

 

 

References

Macnair, T. (2013). “Swine flu.” BBC. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/physical_health/conditions/swineflumulti1.shtml

Merril, R. & Timmreck, T. (2006). “Introduction to Epidemiology.” New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

New York Times. (Tuesday, January 22, 2013). “Swine Flu (H1N1 Virus).” Retrieved from http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/i/influenza/swine_influenza/index.html

 

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When did Globalization Begin? – A Review

When did Globalization Begin is an article written by O’Rourke, Kevin and Jeffrey G.Williamson in 2002, and published in the journal of European Review of Economic History. The article seeks to unravel the exact period when the process of globalization began. However, the authors are keen to use only one factor in guiding them to the approximate period when globalization began. They therefore, use the international trade, as their defining factor, leaving aside other dimensions. The authors in their findings argue that globalization must have begun in the period after the beginning of the 19^th Century. Basing on the factor of international trade, they use the political struggles over trade policies as an evidence of globalization factor, since globalization that affects income distribution in a country.

In writing this article, the authors have made use of different types of sources by different other authors. These sources are mainly those that address the process of globalization, either directly or indirectly. In addition, these sources contain relevant information on trade, as practised in the past. Since the authors were addressing a historical issue, most of the sources they used are old and mainly address historical trade and trade patterns in different world parts. Inn coming up with their facts and conclusions, the authors have primarily relied on literature review. What they do is therefore, to echo the different sentiments of a variety of other past authors, and applying them to their argument. They have used both qualitative and quantitative data in to develop and support their argument.

The primary concern in this article is establishing when exactly globalization began. This is a rather interesting concern because it is hard to find the exact year when globalization started. This is because of the nature of globalization, which unfolds in different facets. However, the authors trace the beginning of globalization using the historical trade. According to them, trade just like globalization, bases on interactions at a higher level. Therefore, it was probable that people in the past ensured that interactions were high to boost trade. They must have come up with strategies of achieving this. An example of this is the transport and communication factor in trading. This was improved each year so that it can connect as many countries as possible to boost trade activities. Therefore, the authors conclude that transport and communication factor was instrumental in bringing countries together and linking them up easily, which is the core aspect of globalization, which according to them, began in the early 19^th Century.

The authors are biased by relying on one aspect to trace the beginning of globalization. They have solely addressed international trade and disregarded other factors such as international factor mobility. If they had based on other factors too, their findings would have been different. This is because globalization process is not only limited to economic activities between different countries, but also manifests itself in social and political relations between various countries. Nonetheless, the article is still informative in its own way, especially for those interested in adopting one approach to globalization, as the authors have done. However, more research is needed in this area, using other factors apart from international trade to discover the period in which globalization might have begun. This article should therefore, draw other researchers back to the drawing board, to come up with conclusive research findings about the possible era when globalization began.

Reputation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade: Evidence on the Maghribi Traders – A Review

            Reputation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade: Evidence on the Maghribi Traders is an article written by Greif Avner, and published in the journal of Economic History in the year 1989. The author has relied solely on the geniza documents to draw his inferences. These are ancient documents retrieved in the 19^th Century in Egypt’s Fustat town (old Cairo). The geniza documents are highly reliable and valid, considering that they are first-hand documents. By using information from these documents to base on his facts and draw inferences, the author ensures that the article exhibits high reliability and facts.

The article’s main purpose is to examine the economic activities of the 11^th Century, which resulted in complex trade with asymmetric information and a lack of sufficient and effective enforcement of legal contracts during this period. The author then identifies the “coalition” as one of the most important economic activities of the past Mediterranean traders. This was an economic institution, which was influential in solving the organizational problems emerging in the trade activities between the Mediterranean traders and their overseas trade partners. From the article, one also learns much about the Maghribi traders, as these are also the reference point of the author. In addition, the interaction between the social and economic institution is manifest, as well as reasons why the Mediterranean traders used specific types of business strategies, and not the others.

The big question in this article is how the Mediterranean and Maghribi traders dealt with the contractual problems in their trade, considering that neither the traders themselves nor their judges had sufficient information about the overseas agents to track them down in case of breach of contract. This is interesting because these traders worked with the overseas agents, who were strangers, and yet managed to strike trade contracts with them, and successfully run their businesses, even considering the poor transport and communication technology during this period. The author has utilized the “geniza” documents to draw his facts upon which he bases his arguments. The geniza documents are an information source about agency relations among the Maghribi and Mediterranean traders during this period, including how their trade was conducted.

The author reaches a conclusion that the trade relations among the Maghribi traders were based on mutual trust. Consequently, the Mediterranean traders were able to interact and trade with the strange overseas agents basing on the prime factor of trust. However, the main economic institution utilized by the Maghribi traders as revealed by the geniza documents, mainly was the coalitions. In addition, further evidence from the geniza documents showed that the Mediterranean traders might also have adopted a similar economic institution. This major strategy helped these traders overcome the contractual problems they experienced in their relations with the overseas agents during their trade activities. The coalition utilised the reputation strategy to ensure trust of the trade parties.

This article is quite informative, as far as the Maghribi and Mediterranean traders are concerned. Although the author has made use of one major primary source, the information is still detailed and informative. One learns important history of the ancient trade among the Maghribi and Mediterranean traders. From this information, one may be in a position to study how the economic institutions have ever since evolved, following their trends up to the contemporary world. The author should have however, used other influential sources to complement the geniza documents. Nonetheless, the article remains useful even with the one primary source. As the author suggests, it is imperative that further analysis of other non-market factors be conducted in order to draw a clear path of the evolutionary process of the economic institutions throughout the different eras up to date. This will lead to a clearer understanding of how the past economic institutions and how they have shaped the present economic institutions.

Works Cited

Greif, Avner. “Reputation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade: Evidence on the Maghribi

Traders.” The Journal of Economic History, 49: 4 (857-882): Cambridge University

Press, Dec. 1989.

O’Rourke, Kevin and Jeffrey. G.Williamson. “When did globalization begin?” European Review 

of Economic History, 6 (25-50): Cambridge University Press, 2002.

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Class Management Plan

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21^st, January 2013

 

Introduction

            A classroom management plan is core to all educational settings. By creating an appropriate learning environment, students will have an opportunity to learn well. A conducive environment for learning goes beyond punishing students for wrongdoings, rather, it involves setting the best tone in a specific class, managing student behaviours, making and using interesting and engaging curriculum, and ensuring the participation of all students in the learning process. This is a sure way of ensuring that the learning needs of all students are equally met. The goal of implementing this class management plan is to therefore, ensure that students have a balanced performance in their learning, including good performance in written work as well as tests. This is a problem facing the learning process presently due to the adoption of the whole language program, which this classroom management plan seeks to solve.

Addressing Parents’ Complaints

            The drop in students’ scores in tests has worried most parents, who have launched their complaints to the institution. To address this effectively, the parents need to be convinced that this will change, and that they will no longer use their money on extra tutorship. A conference between teachers, parents and students will be necessary to discuss the factors that resulted in the situation, as well as the steps in place to be undertaken to change this situation. Teachers have a role to play in handling parents’ complaints. First, they should receive the complaints positively. After all, they influenced the predicament in one way or another. Admitting to the complaints and assuring parents that steps are underway to address the situation, is the best way the teachers can handle the complaints. Teachers will therefore, need to adopt good planning and teaching practices and objectives in order to ensure balanced results of the learners. Most importantly, learners should be taught to understand concepts, but not to memorize them, as this has an adverse effect on their test performance (Hoy & Hoy, 2009).

Need for Changes

            Beyond doubt, the learning process will need a couple of changes. Although the previous learning approach embraced was new, it led to an imbalance in the performance of students. Therefore, the whole language approach will have to be altered and not fully relied on to bring a positive effect on the learning process. The altering of the approach is meant to make it better and effective in ensuring that students have a good and balanced performance in both their written work and tests. The fact that the newly introduced learning approach did not deliver wholly is a reason enough to initiate changes.

Before deciding on the new changes to be adopted, it is crucial that different information be used to help in the decision-making about the most appropriate changes that could be adopted. First, it is important to learn from mistakes, therefore, the teachers have to re-examine their teaching plans, and how they approached the new program. They should do this with the aim of identifying loopholes in their teaching strategies, which could have possibly contributed to the poor scores. Identification of these loopholes will form a basis for the new changes that need to be implemented. In addition, it is beneficial to research about some institutions that have in the past adopted a similar approach, and learn how they went about it, and if it proved effective for them or not. By doing this, a few points may be borrowed from institutions that used the program successfully, to be integrated into the institution’s program (Hoy & Hoy, 2009).

In order to decide on the needed changes, different parties have to participate in the process of decision-making, since a single party cannot make decisions. Teachers are the greatest players in this kind of decision-making as they have a big influence on the learning process. On the other hand, the parents will also be involved in decision-making as they also influence the life of the students. Curriculum experts may come in handy to offer professional advice on the overall situation. Therefore, collaboration between curriculum experts, teachers and parents will most likely result in changes that will see better performance in students, since parents and teachers interact with students, therefore, are better placed to understand student needs, and curriculum experts are knowledgeable in curriculum matters (Hoy & Hoy, 2009).

Stance on Phonics versus Whole Language

            These two types of reading instruction continue to generate much debate among educators, including the public. The phonics method pays more attention to dissecting of unfamiliar words into parts, and then joining up these parts to develop words. This learning process begins with the students’ mastery of alphabets and sounds. This provides students with a form of decoding that enables them decode new words they encounter. On the other hand, the whole language method pays more attention on reading, especially from children literature. This method does not have wide restrictions in language use as the case of phonics method. Much attention is paid to reading and language meaning as it applies to students’ cultures and lives (Hoy & Hoy, 2009).

Both methods have been criticized on various grounds. Whole language is criticized because it does not allow the new learners to acquaint themselves with words; instead, learners start out with learning. On the other hand, phonics is mainly criticized because it limits learners’ creativity and discovery, since they are taught a formula to decode words. This therefore, limits the learners’ natural development as readers. These two approaches have their own strengths and weaknesses, therefore none can be said to be better than the other (Kaura, R, n.d).

Choosing between the two approaches can be a hard task, because they all have strengths and weaknesses. Therefore, a mixed approach is better than adopting only one approach. This is because in a class, there are two types of learners, the visual learners and the auditory learners. Visual learners will benefit much from the phonetic approach, while the auditory learners will benefit from the whole language approach. In order to meet the needs of both groups, both phonics and whole language approach should be adopted. Besides, these two approaches have strengths that if combined, can lead to great outcomes in the learning process.

 

References

Hoy, W. A. & Hoy, W.K. (2009). Instructional Leadership: A Research-Based Guide to Learning

in School. New York: Pearson Education.

Kaura, R. (n.d). Phonics vs. Whole Language. Retrieved 21 January 2013

http://buckhoff.topcities.com/phonics_vs_whole_language.htm

 

 

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FINANCIAL INDUSTRY AND 2008 ECONOMIC MELTDOWN

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19^th, January 2013

 

The financial crisis of 2008 was the worst to hit the United States, after the 1929 stock market crash. Different people have since come up with their own different possible causes and consequences of the 2008 financial crisis in America, which adversely affected other world countries. However, nearly all the reasons for this financial crisis point to the financial industry being responsible for the fueling of the financial crisis. In these articles, while Bogle agrees that the financial crisis was a result of unchecked market forces in the financial industry, Blankfein argues that most financial bodies did not cause the financial crisis directly. Instead, their poor risk management practices are to blame. He however, argues this from the perspective of his financial firm. From this discussion, it will be clear that apart from financial institutions, policy makers also contributed to the financial crisis.

It is true that the root cause of this problem was the decline of the housing market, as Bogle and Blankfein note. Bogle is right when he figures out that this problem has roots in the past events, and so its growth was gradual. The most important factor was the Glass-Steagall Act. When the major elements of this act were repealed, the negative consequences started to unfold. This law was enacted in 1933 as a solution to the collapsed banking institutions, after the 1929 financial breakdown. The main act of this law was to protect the deposits of bank customers from investment risks. Separation of investment banks and commercial depository banks during this period also had overwhelming results in the subsequent years. On the negative, this turned banks into financial institutions working for “agents.” Therefore, since the bank owners were not exposed to any risk, they exercised little caution in their management.

Although Blankfein does not directly put the blame on financial bodies for the 2008 financial crisis, he points out that some of their practices were responsible for the economic meltdown. For instance, some financial institutions engaged in too much lending, which in return cheapened credit. In the housing market, this resulted in its growth before plunging into decline. When lending exceeded the appropriate levels, the lending risks became more pronounced and complex. This complexity of instruments made it impossible for them to be sold or bought, hence increasing the effects of the meltdown. This to date remains the causal factor of the financial crisis, and the US government greatly influenced the housing market in a negative way.

Lack of transparency in financial reporting is essential for financial institutions. Most financial institutions did not report on the state of their derivatives, and most did not manage the risks involved in derivatives in the most appropriate manner. Lack of honesty and transparency in financial reporting gives a wrong impression or image of a company’s financial health. This does not allow for identification and correction of mistakes in the financial institutions as most flaws are deliberately covered. This falsified financial reporting hindered the redress of misdoings in the financial institutions.

For Blankfein, to avert future financial crisis, more attention must be given to the mortgage secularization market, especially in the context of risk management. I agree with Bogle too who proposes that, to prevent future financial crises, financial bodies, which are responsible for the safeguarding of other people’s financial assets, must exhibit honesty and ethics in handling their clients’ finances. They should operate in the interest of their owners, who they serve. It is true that ethics in an organization embraces good management as failure of an organization to meet its objectives affects their clients negatively, and this is unethical. Therefore, financial institutions must be committed and dedicated to good performance in order to save the world another economic meltdown.

In conclusion, the economic meltdown was lethal to the global economy, as even some of its effects are still experienced today. Different forces were behind the economic meltdown. However, the financial institutions made the most contribution in the financial crisis. This was mainly through their poor management practices, such as poor risk management, misplaced priorities, and overall operation of the institutions. There were signs to warn these financial institutions of the looming crisis, but no necessary steps were taken to ensure that the flaws in the financial institutions were corrected and leveled. However, the whole blame cannot be put on financial institutions only as the government and policy makers also influenced these.

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Importance of Computer Forensics

Kishan, Radha. Importance of Computer Forensics. April 17, 2008. Web.

http://ezinearticles.com/?Importance-of-Computer-Forensics&id=1116636

This brief online article addresses the importance of computer forensics in different aspects of an organization. It also sheds light on the practices in computer forensics that can lead to achievement of positive outcomes, as well as those that can intensify the risks involved in computer forensics. In his definition of computer forensics, the author makes it clear that computer forensics involves the use of latest science and technology knowledge with computers in collection, analysis, and presentation of evidence before the court. There is a variety of evidence, including fingerprints, files on computers, among others.

The author emphasizes the fact that network administrators and security staff of different networked organizations be qualified in computer forensics and apply it in their work. Apart from this, they should also have sufficient knowledge of laws relating to computer forensics. Advanced computer knowledge helps in the recovery of destroyed data on computers, which could be used as proof of certain crime. The author also insists that the survival and security of any networked organization today is dependent on their application of computer forensics. In the contemporary world, computer forensics is the cornerstone of computer and network security, because of the cybercrime, which is on an alarming increase rate today.

Computer forensics is of great use to networked organizations, but again poses many threats, if it is not practised appropriately. Mastery of the involved risks in computer forensics will help an organization prevent the loss of crucial evidence. An organization is charged with own protection of its computer data, and in case of destruction or loss, that cannot allow for retrieval, the organization itself is liable for the consequences this brings. Since different laws exist today for protection of consumer data, related organizations must prioritize the safeguarding of their clients’ data. In the new laws relating to computer forensics, an individual whose data is tampered with by an organization has the right to sue the organization. Nonetheless, computer forensics saves companies a lot of money they would otherwise invest in Information Technology.

Although the article has the title, “Importance of computer forensics,” the author does not address the issue exhaustively. There are other more useful importance of computer forensics than the ones named in the article. On a positive note, the author realizes that networked organizations today need to adopt computer forensics as a sure way of the security of their data. This is essential today, considering the crime, which has been transferred from the physical world to the virtual world today. Any organization that could read this and has not adopted computer forensics, will realize the usefulness of computer forensics, as the author has emphasized its need in the contemporary organizational setting.

By emphasizing the qualifications of a network administrator and security staff, the author makes it clear that these persons have a great influence in the level of computer forensics adopted by an organization. Therefore, organizations must be careful when recruiting for these posts because of their sensitive nature. An unqualified person may lead to the breaching of consumer laws in their course of practice of computer forensics, consequently costing the company in terms of finances and integrity. Therefore, security staff and network administrators ought to have sufficient knowledge of cyber forensics to avoid mishaps.

Conclusively, this article is informative, even though it does not wholly address the subject of its topic. A reader understands what computer forensics really is, including its specialization. In addition, one understands why this new discipline must be adopted by organizations today. This article also clarifies the responsibilities of an organization in ensuring the safety of data, to avoid sanctions in case of data loss or damage. By spelling out some of the risks involved in computer forensics, organizations planning to adopt this will be well informed, and have reliable knowledge on how to minimize the involved risks. Nonetheless, this article addresses various aspects of computer forensics, and is not only limited to the importance of computer forensics, which makes it worthwhile.

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Future of the Nation-State

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21^st, January 2013

 

The nation-state is a concept that rose fairly recently. Back in the 16^th and 15^th Centuries, this was non-existent. Before the nation-state, people did not think of themselves as belonging to a nation. They were confined to their villages only, and had little or no knowledge of the outside world. There was a great variation in the laws and practices by different countries.  In addition, the rulers of a country had less influence, compared to the local lords, who had great influence in society. This however, changed when in the rise of modernity; monarchs emerged and slowly took over power and authority from the local lords. The emergence of the monarchs therefore, laid a foundation for nation-states. In the 19^th-Century, the modern nation-state, which is integrated, was established first in the European world. However, the 1648 peace of Westphalia is the most important aspect in the establishment of the nation-state, as it allowed for the sovereignty of the nation-state. The nation-state today is on the verge of decline, because of the forces of globalization and devolution, which have reduced its sovereignty.

The nation-state was considered the dominant social entity in the world starting the mid-19^th Century, as the state and society were virtually merged to become one entity. However, many changes happening in the world have led to changes in the dominance of the nation-state as the most influential social entity. The cultural revolution that began in the West had a great influence on the nature of the nation-state. Other important factors that affected the nation-state include the international communist movements, increased freedom of capital transfer across international borders, and political, social, and economic dysfunction in former colonies of Asia and Africa. By the beginning of the 1990’s, the role of the nation-state was reduced due to different global forces (Creveld, 1999).

The future of the nation-state is uncertain today. There are different factors that have been responsible for the diminishing importance of the nation-state. These are globalization and transnationalism, and devolution. Globalization has led to the breaking down of national boundaries, as different countries can now interact economically, socially, and politically. Globalization has paved way for transnationalism, and it is anticipated that in future, there might be a transnational government. Transnationalism today occurs at the political level. International organizations such as the World Trade Organization and the United Nations are responsible for transnationalism, as they provide economic security and military protection to a variety of vulnerable countries. On the other hand, the European Union has broken down all national boundaries in its member states, paving way for high levels of interaction (Creveld, 1999).

Devolution has been adopted by various nations today. This grants power and authority to the local government and not the central government. This is why the process is called devolution, as power is taken away from the central government, and given back to the local government. When the central government, which is core of the state, loses power, the sovereignty of the state reduces. If these trends of globalization and devolution persist, there are possibilities that a transnational government will replace the nation-state. However, only time will tell what the future holds for the nation-state (Creveld, 1999).

According to Creveld (1996), the capability of the state to fight others for self-defence is on the decline. This is a proof that the function of the nation-state is slowly fading. Initially, defence was among the main reasons for the formation of the nation-state. Failure to perform that today is a clear indication of its decline. The events of French Revolution in the 18^th Century and industrial revolution sparked transnationalism, which is responsible today for the decline of the nation-state. Creveld also notes that modern technology, education, and the media played a role in the formation and decline of the nation-state. Early technology forms such as railway and telegraphs enhanced infrastructure, thus transport and communication was effective within nation-states. However, advanced technology enabled international transport and communication, thus breaking the barriers between countries. Nation-states today embrace foreign currencies such as the dollar in order to participate in international trade. On the other hand, the media, including television, radio, and the present internet has resulted in access of information from different countries, thus breaking down boundaries between countries. The decline of nation-state in developing countries has been influenced by civil wars because of failure to maintain public order. Apart from public order, extreme forces of capitalism have torn down different nation-states as the gap between the poor and the rich widen. Although the nation-state is on the verge of decline, newer states continue to be established today. However, these seek to integrate with other established states, thus losing their sovereignty already before they establish themselves (Creveld, 1999).

Although there is fear and uncertainty that the nation-state might soon collapse, this might not be the case, considering that some states have strongly established themselves. Hauss and Haussman (2012) classified nation-states into two major categories, basing on their weaknesses and strengths. These are weak and strong states. Overall, strong states have a strong and stable political, social, and economic environment, which is established by the state’s rule of law and government. People in strong states can build and invest in their future. On the contrary, in weak states, the political, social, and economic environment is unpredictable, thus the people’s future is unsecured.  Results of a strong state include greater involvement of the government in the state economy, high political involvement because of high political interests in state matters, and party systems are based on responsible party governments. With these characteristics of strong-nation states, it is hard for them to collapse, compared to the weaker states, faced with vast uncertainties. Therefore, it is not possible to generalize that the nation-state will collapse, as there exists stronger states today, which can withstand effects of globalization and devolution to maintain their sovereignty.

 

References

Creveld, M. (1999). Rise and Decline of the State. London: Cambridge University Press.

Hauss, C. & Haussman, M. (2012). Comparative Politics: Domestic Responses to Global

Challenges. New York: Cengage Learning.

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DRAFT

Critical Analysis

The two authors have share different opinions about the issue of whether the risks involved in financial derivatives can be managed or not. While Bass considers financial derivatives as the greatest investment risks, and argues that the risks associated with financial derivatives are not manageable, Welby on the other hand, argues that these risks are manageable, and financial derivatives can be great assets if appropriately managed. In Bass’ argument, it is apparent that financial derivatives are dangerous and they should not be applied to use anywhere, as they are capable of vast loses. On the other hand, Welby explains the importance of financial derivatives, and how if appropriately managed, these could be considered assets, in addition to the manageability of their risks.

Both authors identify that all financial derivatives come with risks, which require management, just like other financial instruments. However, these have addressed financial derivatives as some sort of extra-ordinary financial tools. When Bass argues that risks associated with derivatives cannot be managed, this largely reflects a form of ignorance on the overall issue of derivatives. While tackling derivatives, one should approach it as an ordinary financial instrument to avoid coming up with unrealistic assumptions.

Welby makes valid opinions about derivatives, when he argues that the risks in derivatives can be managed if appropriate strategies are employed. This is true because the risks involved with derivatives are not unique from those involved in other financial instruments.

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Human Resource Management

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Course

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22^nd, January 2012

Human resource management is the process of managing people in an organization. These people, who mostly comprise employees, are core to the organization, as they are responsible for a larger contribution toward the achievement of an organization’s objectives. Therefore, people are valuable assets to any organization, as they influence its productivity. Human resource management thus, employs a coherent and strategic style in managing its human resources (Armstrong, 2008). The human resource management is also charged with the recruitment, selection, and training of its employees. Apart from this, an effective human resource management will also consider developing its own unique reward system for the employees. The human resource management also executes the role of controlling the organizational leadership, organizational culture, as well as ensuring the organization and its employees adhere to labor laws. The human resource management is therefore, an important asset to all managers for the sustainability of the organization.

From the view of the employee, human resource management ensures that employees are working in a fair and equal environment under legal framework, which can protect their rights by Employment Rights Act, Common Law Duties, and the Redundancy Payments Act, among others. In addition, human resource management provides opportunities for the training and development of the employees, which benefit their future career path. On the other hand, from the organization’s view, human resources are the unique resources and capabilities that a firm brings to competition in its environment, which creates sustained competitive advantage (Cheatle 2001).

The human resource management in an organization is paramount, and plays important roles. The roles are diverse, and therefore, are divided and executed under different sub-divisions of the human resource management. The Welfare Human Resource Management has been existent since the 1960s and 70s. This sub-division of human resource management performs a valuable function for small, public, and private companies. It concerns itself with providing effective personnel administration, but having a little influence on the key strategic or operational decision-making of the organization (Cheatle 2001). It has very often been applied in a corner shop, which is small size with less human capital, such as a waffle shop on Oxford Street.

The Policing/Control human resource management often functions in small sized organizations where there exists no extremely sophisticated counseling and support services. In this type of organization, the management is allowed to exercise control, which is normally maintained through very clear procedures for recruitment, discipline, and training, and they often are accompanied by a welfare role. The Operational human resource management on the other hand focuses more on the regulatory functions of the human resources, especially in many large manufacturing industries, which have a huge turnover in staff, and large numbers of employees.

Similarly, the retail sector and the more traditional areas of public sector management, including local government, health, and public sector management, the heart of them is the need for organisational efficiency and good systems management in recruitment, health and safety or training (Purcell et al 2003).

Strategic human resource management according to Kanter (1984) plays the role of eliciting the present actions for the sake of the future. In addition, this is also a vehicle for change, as it is mainly involved with change mechanisms in the organization. This is very much the progressive arm of HR management and it has been so influential in the late 20^th century, that it now is a regular feature of the most modern forward thinking public sector organizations including local government, health, government agencies, and many other statutory functions. This branch of management does not only deal with a collection of human resources related functions. Moreover, it is also responsible for “adding value” to the organization’s effectiveness and profitability by providing effective in-house management and regulation of resources so that they are nurtured and developed and, most importantly, retained within the organization (Kanter 1984).

Strategic human resource management is often applied in large companies with their own organizational culture and complex structure. Cadbury is a famous international company specializing in the manufacture of confectionaries. Given it is an international company operating in different countries; this company has a big number of employees, reaching 50,000 in total, across the world. This is a big number that requires effective human resource management. Therefore, such a company must highly invest in its human resources department. In different stage of the business, the human resource use varies strategy to maximize organizations’ resources resulting to a growth in organizations’ core competencies. In 1977, In order to have effective employees, Cadbury came up with different human resources management strategies that would ensure an effective employee body. For instance, the human resource management came up with a program that targeted the employees, referred to as, “Managing for Value.” The main aim of this programme was to make the organization be results-oriented. This way, employees are trained on the company’s goals and objectives, so that they can have a better understanding of this. Another strategy developed and applied by this company is the 3A’S strategy of Accountability, Adaptability, and Aggressiveness. This standard aims at influencing employees to be self-motivated, and to take the initiative of learning and being aware of the company objectives, and striving to achieve them without being pressured by the management. The implementation of these strategies by Cadbury has led to its employees having an increased sense of belonging. In addition, this has increased the value of the employees, thus increasing their input and the general company productivity (Armstrong 2008).

The largest private and commercial organizations usually have a human resource director who is responsible for the strategic human resource management. The director will in turn manage a large and often perform a powerful function dealing with every aspect of people management from “hiring to firing.” The managing director or chief executive will also work closely with the human resource director on key business decisions involving him or her at the outset of policy-formulation, not as an afterthought, or only to be included when things go wrong (Armstrong 2008).

There are different functions of the human resource management in an organization. However, a company needs to choose the right function for its human resource management.
The nature of the function will depend on the type of business it sits in, the size and complexity of the business activity, and the culture and traditions of the organization. Attempting to develop strategic human resource management in a voluntary organization of less than 100 employees may be worthy, but this is hardly likely to meet the organization’s core needs, and is most unlikely to be affordable. In this organization with less than 100 employees, the operational human resource management is best to apply. The following is a list of questions designed by Kevin Cheatle (Cheatle, 2001) to consider when deciding the role of the human resource management within the organization, and to think about its development as a tool for organizational success.

        i.            Is the organization people-centered?

      ii.            Have the skills required of the individuals working in the organization changed significantly over the last ten years?

    iii.            Does the organization employ plentiful of skills or less skills?

    iv.            How many locations does the organization operate from?

      v.            Does your organization employ more than one category of employee and with a range of terms and conditions of employment?

    vi.            To what degree is the workplace unionized and what is the history and tradition of industrial relations?

  vii.            How is employee training conducted in the organization?

1. What is the public profile of the organization you work in?

Using the same example of Cadbury, which sells confectionary goods as milk chocolate, dairy milk flakes, among others, in order for it to produce these products; it is inevitable that Cadbury must rely heavily on its workforce to manufacture products to reach customers’ expectations. Besides manufacturing, it also requires large number of people in other department such as admission, marketing, finance, among others. Therefore, the organization is largely people-centered. Cadbury as a second largest confectionary company is continuously launching new products. No matter the marketing, people, or the staff in the manufactory, they need to learn new skills to sustain their jobs, and the human resource management is responsible for training and development to ensure the employee get the skills they require for their positions. Since it is a global business, which located in 50 countries, the human resource management role with multi-site operation is more complex than single site operation. To sum up, there are more than six “Yes” of Cadbury for the above question, which is likely to dictate that it requires a strategic HR management within it. There are many types of strategies to choose from. For instance, there is the employment engagement strategy, knowledge management strategy, among others. The most effective is to combine all these strategies to achieve the best outcome (Kay 1999).

The human resource management has an impact on organizational performance. The extent to which the human resource management can influence organisational performance is based on the assumption that people are the organization’s key resource and organisational performance largely depends on them. An effective human resource management therefore, adopts and implements strategies and policies, which will effectively increase the employeees’ performance, thus resulting in a positive influence on the company. The Bath people and performance model developed by Purcell et al (2003) explains this relationship.

Central to this model is the concept that performance is a function of Ability + Motivation + Opportunity (AMO). A look at the outside ring 11 shows how more meaning is given to AMOA by organizational policies and practices. The central box-front-line management is an important feature of this model. This emphasizes the fact that line managers are responsible for the implementation and application of organizational policies. Therefore, without these managers most organizational policies cannot be implemented in an organization.

Figure 1. The Bath people and performance model (Purcell et al, 2003).

Organizational commitment, motivation and job satisfaction all lead to discretionary behavior, which in turn generates performance outcomes, which in themselves contribute to commitment, motivation, and job satisfaction (Purcell et al 2003).

Kay (1999) notes that, the capabilities of an organization are paramount; as they determine how well the organization will compete in the market, whether favorably or unfavorably. Well-managed human resource is a distinctive competence, which can be described as an important feature that is hard for the rival to imitate, and will generate more profit for the company in the end.

The human resource management is integrated into organizational strategy, operations, and practices in various ways. First, the aspect of organizational effectiveness is imperative. The strategies any human resource management adopts should aim at improving the company’s productivity, as well as improving the relations between the company and its clients through setting up of policies that will address these important concerns in the organization. These policies could focus on different areas of the organization, such as knowledge, talent, and the management of these, and overall, the creation of a conducive work environment. Therefore, the organization will gain the integrated value (Bontis et al 1999).

For instance, a company called Mars, which specializes in the production of confectionary and food, is popular for its history of a strong human resource management. The human resource management this company adopts is unique and effective, and this makes it stand out among all other companies, based on its human resources practices. For effective human resource management, companies should develop policies that will lead to the retaining of their good employees, as these are crucial to any organization. When the human resource management is poor or adopts policies that are not practical, this may force the company to lose competent employees, as they will look for companies with better work conditions. Mars is a company that has ensured that its human resource management is practical and favorable to all employees, such that none will think of leaving the company. This good human resource management has led to increased productivity of Mars’ employees, as well as the increased productivity of the company itself. What influenced this effectiveness of the human resource management of Mars is the company’s adoption of the latest planning strategies and methods, which are applicable in the contemporary business world, thus influencing greater productivity. They wanted to ensure that they took every opportunity for helping the organization improve its performance whenever it arose. This case of Mars points out the need for different companies to embrace a human resource department that comprises well-qualified individuals, who are appropriately trained in human resource management, and with experience of the best HRM practices and approach. With this kind of human resource management in a company, the company and employee productivity is likely to improve, as this kind of human resource management will take advantage of any available opportunity to make the company excel (Bontis et al 1999).

Human capital management is another paramount component of human resource management. According to Bontis et al (1999), human capital is the representation of the human element in a company. This includes various human factors such as skills, knowledge, intelligence, expertise, among others, which all make the company have a unique character from other companies. These factors form the human aspects of a company and these have the capability to learn, transform, and are innovative. If these are utilized in the most appropriate manner, they have the capability of ensuring that the company lasts longer and survives different negative forces in the market. As earlier mentioned, human resource management therefore, has the greatest responsibility of ensuring that the company is committed, skilled, and self-motivated employees are retained, as these are valuable assets to the company.

Human capital management involves the operation of “rigorous recruitment and selection procedures, performance-contingent incentive compensation systems, and management development and training activities linked to the needs of the business” (Becker et al 1997). For example, The Richard Rogers partnership, an architectural practice, has grown in size due to its worldwide success. Its partnership, an architectural practice, has grown in size due to its worldwide success. Its HRS recognized the need to retain its strong informal team-working ethos, yet establish modern procedures in recruitment and appraisal and reward to ensure efficiency and equity (Becker et al 1997).

Knowledge management in human resource management plays another crucial role in a company. Knowledge management refers to “any process or practice of creating, acquiring, capturing, sharing and using knowledge, wherever it resides, enhance learning and performance in organizations” (Scarborough et al, 1999, p.58). The human resource management aims at developing skills and knowledge that will be unique to the organization. This is achieved through the implementation of a variety of learning processes in the organization, which includes all employees. For instance, in order to challenge the reasoning of their managers, the North West Water sent their managers on a field trip to study the processes of water treatment practiced in different world regions. They came back brimming with ideas and often from countries, that previously they would have dismissed as places from which there was nothing to learn.

Reward management is yet another factor of human resource management that is beneficial to employees. Motivation for employees is an important obligation of the human resource management in all companies. Since retaining employees is one of the objectives of human resource management, these need to be highly motivated by the company for them to experience job satisfaction, which will in return boost employee performance, as well as the productivity of the company. The human resource management in a company ensures this by developing policies that will enhance employee motivation and their commitment to their job. These policies will comprise provisions for rewards for the employees. These rewards can be either in the form of money, or other non-financial forms. With this, the employees will feel they are valued, and that they are making an important contribution toward achieving the company objectives. This will therefore, motivate employees to work even harder, which is beneficial to the company. For instance, Cadbury Company fulfills this as it has its own reward system for employees. This company gives bonuses to its employees on different occasions. Giving bonus will help their employees and the employees are satisfied with company’s plan. The bonuses given by this company vary, and are mainly in monetary form. However, the company ensures that all the employees are beneficiaries of the bonuses, which is why the company diversified its bonuses. By such plans, employees get motivated towards work and they can spend more time for company and for their bonuses. As new employees are also getting bonuses before joining only, they also will have motivation and encouragement towards work (Armstrong 2008).

Employee relations is another element of human resource management that sets the mood for most employees in the organization. The relations between employees and the management are important to all companies. This greatly influences the nature of work environment in a company. The human resource management therefore, must ensure that the relations in the company are productive, and uphold the highest form of harmony. This kind of relation can be achieved through different partnerships between employees and the management, through a variety of unions and societies they set up in the company. For instance, in the airline industry, the mission statement highly emphasizes on the appropriate treatment of their employees. In addition, the employees need a source of empowerment for them to execute their jobs effectively. At Duncan Aviation Company, the management believes that the quality of customer service of the company is determined by how their employees are treated. This means that unhappy and unsatisfied employees will lead to unhappy and unsatisfied clients. They keep their employees happy through strong, caring, and consistent leadership; developing, communicating, and staying true to their solid mission; a forward-focused vision, which keeps the company strong, and competitive; and high values that they live by on a daily basis (Becker et al 1997).

Finally, meeting diverse needs of employees in an organization is essential to ensure they are comfortable in their work environment. Another important role of the human resource management is to create and implement policies, which will address the different needs of the stockholders. These policies will also ensure that the employees from a diverse background are well managed, bearing in mind the various factors that make them different. These differences are in the form of work style, personal needs, employment needs, and aspirations, among others. The human resource management therefore, should work at meeting and balancing the various needs of the employees in the company, providing all employees with equal opportunities (Cheatle 2001).

In conclusion, human resource management is the threshold of all organizations because of the important role it plays in the management of employees, who are the center of an organization. Therefore, all managers of an organization must have the knowledge, skills, and experience in human resource management, as this is the force, which drives the organization. Effective human resource management will lead to a productive company, and vice versa. A company that adopts effective and practical human resource management strategies is more likely to retain its employees, as it will provide them a conducive work environment, as compared to a company with poor strategies, which will draw away its employees. Human resource management is diverse and includes areas of organizational strategy, operations, and policies, which ensure effective management and control of most processes in the organization. Most successful companies in the world exhibit strong human resource management, which has resulted in their success. Therefore, it is important that organizations invest in their human resource management, as this will increase their productivity and competence in the market.

 

Works Cited

Armstrong, M 2008, Strategic Human Resource Management, Kogan Page, London.

Becker, B. E., Huselid, M. A., Pickus, P. S. & Spratt, M. F 1997, HR as Source of Shareholder

Value: Research and Recommendations, Human Resource Management, spring, 36(1), pp

39-47.

Bontis, N., Dragonetti, N. C., Jacobsen, K. & Roos, G 1999, The Knowledge Toolbox: A Review

of the Tools available to Measure and Manage Intangible Resources, European Management

Journal, 17(4), pp 391-402.

Cheatle, K 2001, Mastering Human Resource Management, Palgrave, New York.

Kanter, R. M 1984, The Change Masters, Allen & Unwin, London

Kay, J 1999, Strategy and the Illusions of Grand Designs, Mastering Strategy, Financial Times,

21 May, pp2-4.

Purcell, J., Kinnie, K., Hutchinson, S., Rayton, B. & Swart, J 2003, Understanding the People

and Performance Link: Unlocking the black box, Chartered Institute of Personnel and

Development, London.

Scarborough, H., Swan, J. & Preston, J 1999, Knowledge Management: A Literature Review,

Institute of Personnel and Development, London

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