Category: Samples

NATIONALISM THEORIES AND RACISM

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20^th, March, 2013

 

 

The concept of nationalism is believed to have first emerged during the French Revolution in the eighteenth century. During this period, states and boundaries were existent, but nations did not utilize them to their benefit. France was first to utilize the phenomenon of nationalism. According to Mill, as quoted in Smith (2010, p.9) “Nationalism is a necessary condition of free institutions that the boundaries of government should coincide in the main with those of nationality . . . Where the sentiment of nationality exists in any force, there is prima facie case for uniting all the members of the nationality under the same government, and a government to themselves apart.” Nationalism cannot be termed as either good or bad, just like the phenomena of socialism, capitalism, or imperialism. Nonetheless, in a good nationality, citizens strive to ensure that their nation is maintained. On the other hand, in bad nationalism, a nation only considers its superiority, and acts against other nationalities in order to remain superior (Smith 2010). Examples of past leaders who perpetuated bad nationality include Slobodan Milosevic and Adolf Hitler. Therefore, nationality is a factor that can cause unification or lead to disintegration.

Today, there are various theories of nationalism, which attempt to explain the phenomenon of nationality in different contexts. According to Conversi (1995), these theories can be divided into different categories, namely the ethno-symbolic, transactional, and homeostatic. However, this categorization was made basing on those theories, which put an emphasis on the boundary mechanisms of nations. Here, Conversi dismisses the traditional categorizations of instrumentalism and primordialism, since these might not apply to modern nationalism (Conversi 1995).

Primordialist and sociobiological theories of nationalism are some of the universal theories applied to nationalism. In the primordialist perspective, it is believed that nationalism confers some form of group identity to the members of a nation. A nation is compared to a society, and therefore, just like the society, a nation is characterized by irrational attachments of people, which are based on race, blood, language, among others. Today, most countries, especially those in the third world, have embraced their group identities, which are evident in their communities and ethnic groups. Geertz was a contributor to the theory of primordialism. According to Geertz, the factor of identity in the primordialist approach is natural. These identities are coercive, therefore, cannot be understood basing on people’s social interactions. Finally, he asserted that these identities base on affection and might make the involved people sentimental (Conversi 1995).

Another contributor to the primordialist approach was Harold Isaacs. According to Harold, people are normally born into a specific group of people or society at a particular time in history. Therefore, upon being born, each person acquires an identity, similar to that of the group in which they are born. Harold also identified various elements of the identity, which an individual gains. First, he identified the physical factors of skin color, hair type, body size, and type of face, among others. Secondly, he identified the name that is given to an individual. Mostly, people are given family names, and other names common in their group. In addition, a person’s first language identifies them with a specific group of people. Harold also identified the elements of religion, culture, nationality, or ethnic affiliation, the geography of a person’s area of birth, and the history of the group a person is born into, as factors, which grant a person a form of identity (Harris 2009).

On the other hand, the sociobiological approach bases on human behavior, in its explanation of nationalism. This bases on three factors, namely, kin selection, reciprocity, and coercion to investigate human interactions. Nepotism is an important player in kin selection. This helps individuals in the same group to make use of their potentials and gain success. Ethnicity is also evident in this element, as it happens among the members of the same group. In the second element of reciprocity, individuals in the same group tend to cooperate in order to achieve success. On the other hand, the element of coercion identified the existence of unequal powers within a group or between two different groups. Pierre Van den Berghe was among the first to present the element of ethnicity using the sociobiological framework. He therefore, explained how similar biological traits among group members results in their solidarity, which sometimes turns out to be nepotistic. According to him, although members of the same group might experience misunderstandings and conflicts, it is more probable that cooperation in human beings is higher where the parties have a common descent (Conversi 1995).

            Instrumentalist theories are a second category of nationalism theories. Although this category does not address nations directly, its assumptions can be generalized to fit in the case of nations and nationalism. Unlike the primordialist thinkers, instrumentalists hold the assumption that ethnic identity is not rigid, but can vary, and it holds flexibility. This means that with regard to change of circumstances, the boundaries of an ethnic group are as well entitled to change. In this theory, ethnicity is viewed as highly dynamic, and individuals in an ethnic group are believed to have the chance of changing their ethnic identity to a different one. In addition, this theory claims that individuals in a group change their ethnicity in order to achieve economic or political security (Kumar & Delanty 2006). This theory, like the others, also emphasize on strong bonds among members of the same group. Some of the contributors to this approach include Fredrik Barth, Michael Banton, Michael Hechter, Susan Olzak, and Joanne Nagel, among others (Moliis n.d).

Modernization theories are yet another set of theories that can be used to explain the element of nationalism. Most theories in this category base on different aspects of modernity to explain nationalism. The difference between modernism theories and the primordial and sociobiological theories is that in modernism theories, modern nations are considered a continuation of past nations, while in primordial theories, nations had existed throughout history, and were not considered to have undergone any sort of transformation (Moliis n.d). Nonetheless, the modernization theories mainly trace the roots of nationalism to industrialization, even as nations transited from traditional to modern societies. Economically speaking, nationalism emerged as a result of trade and commercial activities. Politically, nationalism emerged with the formation of the centralized and bureaucratic nation state (Llobera 1999).

Modernization theories are further grouped into other sub-groups, namely, the social communication theories by Karl Deutsch and Dankwart Rustow, among others, economistic theories, and politico-ideological theories. In the social communication theories, Benedict Anderson is well known for his Imagined Communities. He based on the print capitalism to explain nationalism. Use of same language in the print mechanism by capitalists resulted in the cohesion of people, since they could use a similar language (Llobera 1999).

The economistic theories hold the assumption that nationalism is a false consciousness, as economic interests drive nations. Therefore, according to thinkers in these theories, nationalism serves to fool people, and acts to cover up the economic exploitation on the people. The Marxist thinkers mainly hold this view (Kumar & Delanty 2006). In the 1970’s Michael Hechter developed a new theory, based on the initial Marxist thinking. This argued that in a state, there existed ethononational movements, especially due to the inequalities experienced by different ethnic groups. For example, today there are inequalities in different countries, based on the aspect of racial background. In reality, the blacks in the USA are not entitled to the same privileges as whites, while the Indians in Latin America face inequalities, compared to the natives (Brubaker 2009).

Hechter also identified economic disparities in nations, basing on his study of the United Kingdom. He noted economic disparities in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. While some were economically dependent, others thrived on capitalism. Hechter noted that in one nation, there also exist economic disparities in various regions, since the state might subordinate specific regions, while developing others. According to Hechter, this subordination and marginalization of other areas results in different types of political behaviors as well as ethnonational movements in a country (Brubaker 2009). On the other hand, Ernest Gellner in his theory of industrial homogenization argued that nationalism has its roots in industrialization. Therefore, he did not consider countries in the pre-industrial era as bearing nationalism. This is because cultural boundaries had not been adopted by countries. He also notes that colonialism, protestant reformation, and imperialism influenced nationalism in special ways (Conversi 1995).

All the theories of nationalism have attempted to explain the roots of nationalism, as well as the effects of nationalism. Most have come up with identity types basing on ethnicity and the aspect of race, as some of the effects of nationalism. According to Van den Berghe, race is a form of ethnicity, and therefore, this should be studied under ethnicity. On the other hand, Michael Banton has argued that race and ethnicity are two different concepts. While race is an element that leads to the categorization of people, ethnicity confers identification to people (Harris 2009). Fredrik Barth is the most influential theorist of nationalism. From his approach, different levels of ethnicity are realized. These are the micro level, the median level, the macro level, and the global level (Llobera 1999).

 

In the global level of ethnicity, Barth has based on the most recent developments in the world, which have emerged because of pursuit of human rights, justice, among other issues affecting humankind. This therefore, identifies the important role, which the United Nations Organization plays in the world today. Despite the different ethnicities and races that exist in the world, the United Nations has continued to serve as a unifying factor of different nations and races in the world. The United Nations also continues to serve as a peacekeeper of many nations in the world. Most of the time, conflicts between different nations emerge mainly because of differences in their nationalisms and ethnicities, or even races. However, the United Nations acts as a neutral party in the conflicts, while trying to help the warring nations regain peace (Llobera 1999).

Apart from restoration of peace and human rights, the United Nations also continues to provide humanitarian aid to various needful nations. Hechter, in his theory of nationalism identified economic disparities in various nations. This, he attributed to nationalism, which he termed as being built on capitalistic intentions. Therefore, the capitalistic nations will manage to economically exploit the less capitalistic nations, making them to be economically dependent. Similarly, a nation might disguise itself as promoting nationalism when it does exploit its citizens economically (Llobera 1999). Additionally, imperialism and colonialism contributed to the economic marginalization of most countries. The third world countries today are the most affected, as this has led to their economic marginalization. It is considered by most theorists that today’s third world countries still lag behind in industrialization, compared to the first world countries. This state of economic disparity witnessed between different categories of countries is influenced by nationalism, and has detrimental effects to the relationships between these countries. In most third world countries, there are harsh economic realities, including hunger, underdevelopment, and internal ethnic conflicts, among others. The United Nations, therefore, comes in again. Based on its philanthropic and humanitarian nature, the United Nations helps such countries to reduce poverty levels, hunger, internal conflicts, as well as rescuing them when faced with natural catastrophes. The UN acts without any affiliations to any specific nations. Similarly, other in non-governmental organizations have joined hands with the UN in helping the economically underprivileged countries (Llobera 1999).

In addition, the USA being the world superpower has shown its efforts in helping the economically downtrodden countries. This is mainly through aid and donor funds. In this case, the USA looks beyond the ethnic, and race factors, which are creations of nationalisms. Most third world countries have benefitted from international aid from the USA. The USA also intervenes in wars between different countries, and sends aid to countries stricken by disasters (Kumar & Delanty 2006). Similarly, international financial institutions such as the World Bank and IMF have equally provided different aid to needful countries (Llobera 1999). In all these case, it is clear that these international bodies serve a different purpose. These influence ethnicity, race, as well as the overall nationalism in a different way. Where nations have confined nationalism within their political boundaries, the international organizations have proved that nationalism is better if it is global. Therefore, the United Nations and other international organizations attempt to move nationalism from being particularistic to being universalistic. These organizations have proved that it is only through this way that all countries might gain equality in social development, as well as economic development. Particularistic nationalism has confined economic development within the boundaries of specific countries, while others are marginalized economically (Llobera 1999).

In conclusion, nationalism is an ideological phenomenon that continues to play an important role in the world today. Since this is mostly defined by the political boundaries of a country, it has led to more cohesion and cooperation being experienced among people of the same nation, compared to people of different nations. Different nationalism theories have also pointed to this factor, identifying ethnicity as the resultant factor. With regard to race, some theorists have argued that people will identify with one another if they share similar physical, historical, or religious traits, among others. Therefore, people of the same race will exhibit a high level of cooperation. Nationalism has also resulted in economic disparities between nations, because of the demarcation of nations based on political boundaries. This has therefore, resulted in other countries being underdeveloped socially and economically. Nonetheless, the United Nations and other international organizations such as IMF, World Bank, and other non-governmental organizations, have brought a new meaning to nationalism. These are committed to turning nationalism into a universalistic aspect, instead of its particularistic nature today. In doing this, these will be able to address the various detrimental effects of particularistic nationalism today, thus promoting equal social and economic development for all nations.

 

 

 

Works Cited

Brubaker, R 2009, ‘Ethnicity, Race and Nationalism,’ Annual Review of Sociology, 35:21-42,

Viewed 20 March 2013

<http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/faculty/brubaker/Publications/Ethnicity_Race_Nationali

sm_ARS.pdf>

Conversi, D 1995, ‘Reassessing Current Theories of Nationalism: Nationalism as Boundary

Maintenance and Creation,’ Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 1(1): 73-85. Viewed 20

March 2013 < http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/conversi/reass.pdf>

Harris, E 2009, Nationalism: Theories and Cases, Edinburgh University Press, New York.

Kumar, K. & Delanty, D 2006, The SAGE Handbook of Nations and Nationalism, SAGE,

London.

Llobera, J 1999, Recent Theories in Nationalism, Viewed 20 March 2013 <

http://www.recercat.net/bitstream/handle/2072/1300/icps164.pdf;jsessionid=3DA0E5536660B3E50C90692086CC3A05.recercat1?sequence=1>

Moliis, J n.d, Nationalism, Viewed 20 March 2013 <http://www.moliis.org/jani/nationalism.pdf>

Smith, A 2010, Nationalism, Polity, London.

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Guns and Homicides

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Cases of homicide exist in various countries. However, the prevalence of these cases in different countries varies. While some countries register high cases of homicide, in others, these cases are minimal. The governments of these different countries show concern over homicide cases. Therefore, most governments have looked for ways of ensuring that homicide rate in their countries is as low as possible. In order to ensure this, different strategies are adopted which will keep homicide cases in check. As a fact, most governments have linked homicide with guns and gun ownership in their countries. Therefore, to reduce homicide cases in their countries, some governments have considered banning gun ownership. Therefore, this shows that these governments believe that homicide is normally committed using guns only. The issue of guns and homicide has raised concerns in the previous years, and is still debated, especially when the USA recently undertook a move to ban gun ownership in the country. Nonetheless, considering the statistics from different countries about their gun ownership status and levels of homicide, it is clear that fewer guns in society does not mean fewer homicides.

Homicide and murder are two different elements. Although both involve killing, their difference rests in the motivation behind the killing. While in murder, a person kills due to malicious motives, in homicide, the killer kills for no reason. There have been many incidences this year and in the past years, where people engage in mass shootings in schools, in movie theatres, and in places of worship. This is considered homicide, since the killer has no malicious motive when he or she shoots at the people and kills them. In the USA, such incidences are ones that motivated the government to consider proclaiming a gun ownership ban in the country, in order to prevent such incidences from occurring in the future (Beeghley, 2003).

Generally, lawmakers have started getting interested in controlling amount of guns in the population after the incident at Newtons, believing that, the fewer the guns, the safer the population. However, it is important to understand the correlation between gun ownership and reduced homicide. This can be answered using various statistics showing the safety situation in different world countries, with regard to gun ownership. Homicide can be committed using a gun, or any other weapon capable of killing. However, it is easier to commit homicide using a gun. Therefore, if the number of guns in the population is reduced, this would either result in increased or reduced cases of homicide in the population (Squires, 2012).

When many people in a country are allowed to own guns, these have the opportunity to practice self-defense. Therefore, in such a country, there will be fewer cases of robberies, murder, and assaults, since the people can defend themselves, using their guns. As mentioned earlier, homicides are committed either using firearms or using other different weapons. Therefore, if a country regulates the number of guns in the population, this will eventually serve to reduce the cases of homicides, which are committed using guns. On the other hand, this will increase homicide committed using other weapons, apart from guns. What remains is that countries where there are more guns in the population might be safer and experience less violence due to different reasons. Similarly, countries with fewer guns in the population might also experience high rates of homicide, and other killings, because citizens cannot defend themselves in such cases (Squires, 2012).

Two criminologists, Don Kates and Mauser Gary conducted an intensive study about the gun laws in America and Europe and their rates of violence. Their findings generally showed that in countries where there is gun control, thus, low guns in the population, experienced high rates of homicide and other murder cases, while in countries with no gun control, thus more guns in society, the homicide and murder rates were lower. These two researchers studied nine European countries, which have low guns in the population due to government regulation of gun ownership. In these countries, gun ownership stood at 5,000 or less guns per 100,000 people. Results showed that these nine European countries have very high homicide and murder rates, equivalent to the homicide rates of that are three times higher than those of nine other different countries, which have the highest number of guns in the population, which stood at 15.000 guns in every 100,000 number of people (‘The American Civil Rights Union,’ n.d).

The results of their study also showed that Norway had highest number of guns in its population in all Western Europe regions yet registered the lowest rate of homicide and murder. This contrasted with Holland, which is also in Western Europe. In Holland, there was the minimal number of guns in society. However, this country registered the highest rate of homicides and murder. Similarly, in Russia, the number of murder and homicide were four times those of the USA and twenty times higher than Norway. This is despite the fact that in Russia, private ownership of guns was banned. Therefore, the homicides and murders in Russian are mostly non-firearms. Therefore, the researchers concluded that fewer guns in the population leads to high rates of homicide and murder, while many guns in the population results in reduced cases of homicide and murder (‘The American Civil Rights Union,’ n.d).

The Guardian presents further statistics on number of guns in the population versus the rates of homicide and crime. The guardian presents a spreadsheet, where there is data on the number of guns in every 100 people, as well as the rate of homicides by firearms, in different countries. From the results, it is clear that the country with the highest number of guns in the population is the USA, with approximately 88 guns per 100 people. However, this country does not register the highest rates of homicide. Instead, higher rates of homicide are found in Jamaica and Honduras. This proves that many guns in the population do not lead to increased homicides (‘The Guardian,’ n.d).

Conclusively, fewer guns in the population do not automatically lead to lower rates of homicide. The different statistics have shown that in most countries with fewer guns in the population, their rates of homicide were higher compared to countries with higher numbers of guns in the population. Therefore, in dealing with increased rates of homicide, it might not be very sensible for a government to consider a ban on firearms, as the statistics have shown. After all, guns do not kill, but the people. Therefore, the problem lies in the people, and their psychology, and not in guns. Therefore, homicide rates might be lowered in a country if the government ensures that its people are in the right psychological status.

 

References

The American Civil Rights Union. (n.d). Harvard Study: Gun Control Is Counterproductive.

Retrieved from http://theacru.org/acru/harvard_study_gun_control_is_counterproductive/

The Guardian. (n.d). Gun homicides and gun ownership listed by country. Retrieved from

http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2012/jul/22/gun-homicides-ownership-world-list

Beeghley, L. (2003). Homicide: A Sociological Explanation. London: Rowman & Littlefield.

Squires, P. (2012). Gun Culture or Gun Control?: Firearms and Violence: Safety and Society.

New York: Routledge.

 

 

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Changing Age of Consent Laws

In each country, there is an “age of consent,” and this differs from one country to another. Nonetheless, the age of consent refers to a specific age, whereby an individual, mainly a young person, is allowed to make independent decision, without the influence of parents, guardians, or other seniors in society. This especially refers to consenting to sexual activity. In addition, any individual that is sexually involved with a young person under the age of consent is considered a criminal and a sex offender. This is because the age of consent is part of the statutory rape laws. In this case, statutory rape implies a situation where an older individual engages in sexual activity with another individual who has not yet attained the age of consent. These individuals below the age of consent might as well be referred to as minors. The legislature is therefore, an influential force in controlling child sex abuse, since this is capable of developing criminal laws, which will apply to child abuse and protection.

Different countries have different child age of consent laws. The variance in these laws across different countries can be attributed to the politics in the country, as well as the effects of colonialism in the country. However, in most countries, this age ranges between 12-18 years. In the Unites States of America, the range currently stands at 15-18, depending on the type of state. Additionally, in each state, there are specific ages identified, whereby a young person might not undergo prosecution in case of a crime that is committed by them. Nonetheless, each state has different age of consent laws, which are developed, depending on the sex and sexual identities of the parties involved (Angelides 141).

Despite the existence of age of consent laws today, various issues still pose a challenge to the security and well-being of children in the world. Therefore, the current age of consent laws need revamping, in order to address the various issues that affect children today.  The main issue is child abuse, which is mainly sexual in nature. Children continue to be abused by older members of the society (Graupner 123). This scenario therefore, reflects on the failure of the various statutes concerned with the child age of consent in various countries. Thus, age of consent reforms are needed in order to ensure that children and all minors are protected.

The first change in child age of consent must consider the age of consent itself. While in most European countries and other countries this roughly ranges between 12-18 years, I am of the opinion that all countries must adopt a standard or universal age of consent. This age of consent should be set at 18 years for all countries. This is because at 18, an individual is mature, and therefore, can make wise decisions and judgements. In some countries, the age of consent is set at 12 years. I consider this too low. A 12-year-old person is still young, and cannot make mature decisions, considering their low levels of maturity. Although Graupner (142) argues that a high age of consent denies individuals their liberty, I acknowledge these as children, who still need guidance and control form their parents and families.

Another area of concern in the age of consent laws is the punishment conferred on criminals found victimizing minors in any way whatsoever. According to Graupner (113), criminal law is the best weapon for child protection. Child sexual abuse and other victimization forms have detrimental effects on children. The victims suffer both physically, emotionally, and psychologically. The presence of HIV today makes it worse, as sexual abuse in minors might result in them contracting this virus, in case the offender is infected. The law should be effective to protect minors from abuse. I therefore, propose that the Sexual Offence Act should be amended, so that a sex offender includes anyone, who engages in sexual activity with an individual who is aged below 18 years. In the United States and Canada, a sex offender is one that engages in sexual activity with a person aged below 16 years. Although the law protects people of all ages against sexual abuse, if this is stated categorically in the constitution, it will help put more emphasis. Sex offenders need tougher measures such as longer jail terms. After release, these must be supervised by correction agencies, which must also be strict. In addition, any form of sexual abuse in minors should be put to trial, whether the minor was hurt or not. According to Graupner (114), most cases where minors are not physically harmed go unreported, or courts stop working on them. This form of leniency worsens the situation of sexual abuse in minors.

Different types of researches conducted by sociologists and anthropologists on child sexuality have shown that child sexuality is real and normal. Interviews with former child abuse victims showed that the victims partly enjoyed the experience, and in most cases, the abused minors were seductive and flirtatious (Angelides 145). This therefore, shows that minors contribute to their abuse. However, this should not be a reason for adopting ineffective age of consent laws, and very low age of consent. It is important to understand that minors have not reached an age to reason maturely, and their behaviour is motivated by childishness. Therefore, it is possible that some ‘psychopaths’ in society might take advantage of them. This is why the age of consent laws needs to be strong enough to protect the innocent minors, who are the future nations. Nonetheless, the legislature today has a role to play in ensuring effective age of consent laws in their countries, in order to curb child abuse, which continues to raise concerns today.
Works Cited

Graupner, Helmut, J, D. “Sexual Consent: The Criminal Law in Europe and Outside of Europe.”

Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 16 (2-3), 111-171, 2005.

Angelides, Steven “Feminism, Child Sexual Abuse, and the Erasure of Child Sexuality.” A

Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies, 10 (2), 141-177, 2004.

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Double Indemnity – An Analysis

            Double Indemnity is an example of a film noir. This comprises various crimes perpetuated by the characters. The year of release of this movie is 1944. This film carries a dark tone in both its visual and thematic presentation. In its visual presentation, the lighting is sparse, and characters are shown to be under shadows and in darkness. This symbolises a form of danger in the characters’ environment. The danger is form of corruption, violence, and mystery, even as the film is characterised by people with ambiguous behaviours and questionable motives.

There exists an anti-hero in the film, as well as a femme fatale, who is overly seductive, and is partly responsible for the fall of the hero. Phylis Dietrichson is the femme fatale in this film. She is beautiful and powerful, even though she is portrayed as helpless at some point. She comes out as a manipulative, evil, and as a sexually assertive woman. She is responsible for the death of her husband, Dietrichson. Greed drives her and Walter to murder Dietrichson, in order to inherit his wealth.

This film is full of struggles, as different characters struggle and manoeuvre their ways into achieving their desires. They do not consider the ways they use to get what they want. Any way that can help them get their wants is used, even if it means shedding blood, as long as it takes them where they want to be. Thus, Phylis kills her husband to get wealth. She also killed Dietrichson’s wife to marry Dietrichson. Ironically, Walter kills Phylis in the end when he finds out about every detail of Phylis’ dark side. Walter is the anti-hero, since he too is doomed, after reporting himself to the insurance office. Nonetheless, the struggle portrayed by characters in this film somehow reflects life in the USA after WW2, whereby Americans needed to survive at all cost, to keep the American Dream alive.

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‘In the Vicinity of Ouray’

            ‘In the Vicinity of Ouray’ is an artwork by Charles Partridge Adams, found in his collection of Bruce and Dorothy Dines. The exact of date of its creation remains unknown. However, this could possibly be between 1800 and the early 1900’s, because, according to the Denver Art Museum, this is the period, which Charles Adam was active (Denver Art Museum WEB). This artwork is displayed in the Denver Art Museum, and is among other artworks of Adams. Adams was one of the best artists in Colorado, and was famous for his paintings of mountain peaks (Denver Art Museum WEB).

This is a mountain painting, where he used oil paint on canvas. The painting shows a mountain peaks with ice, and is snowy. From the name of the artwork, ‘In the vicinity of Ouray,’ we can establish considerable information about this artwork. The word ‘vicinity’ means a place or an area, which surrounds or in the surrounding of a particular place. Therefore, the snowy mountain peaks in the painting are near Ouray. Nonetheless, Adams’ painting shows snowy mountain peaks within Ouray.

As mentioned, the mountain peaks are covered with considerable ice. In addition, in the painting, there is a fallen tree on the slope of one of the mountain. The mountains shown in the painting are of considerable heights, and in fact, they are in a group, thus, these could possibly be mountain ranges. The snow and ice on the mountain peaks show that this painting was taken during wintertime. If this was not painted during wintertime, then the artist painted this artwork out of his memory. If this is the case, then it seems the mountains were such a fascination to this artist, until he had to paint them.

The amount of snow on the mountain peaks is not great, therefore, it might also be true that this painting was done near the end of winter period. Since the mountains in the painting are mountain ranges, then these could possibly be the famous Rockies, which stretch to parts of the state of Colorado. Ouray, being a county in Colorado, means is close to the Rockies in Colorado.

Therefore, this painting shows the attraction of Colorado, which is the Rockies. Ouray is famous for being a tourist destination, receiving quite a big number of tourists each year. The Rockies in Ouray are part of the main tourist attractions in the small town. Today, this small town continues to receive tourists, who are attracted to the snow-capped peaks of the Rockies among other attractions such as the Ouray Ice Park, jeep roads, and sulphur-free hot springs. Al these tourist attractions have existed over the past decades through history.

Most artists create paintings that represent an important phenomenon in the environment, history, or personal life. These mountain peaks are part of the environment. Therefore, these had an important meaning to the painter, Adams. From this, it can be deduced that the Rockies in Ouray were an attraction since the historical times. The reason for this is that, this painting was created in one of the years between 1800 and 1900. Therefore, the importance of Ouray as a historical tourist attraction emerges from this painting, given it is an old painting.

 

Works Cited

Denver Art Museum. “Rocky Mountain Majesty: The Paintings of Charles Partridge Adams

December 16, 2012 – September 8, 2013.” <http://www.denverartmuseum.org/exhibitions/rocky-mountain-majesty>

 

 

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Poverty

            The element of poverty can be defined differently, depending on the context in which it is used. Nonetheless, according to the World Health Organization, the phenomenon of poverty can be defined with regard to income. Therefore, the lower the income of an individual, the greater is his or her level of poverty. World Health Organization considers any individual or families spending less than US$2 each day poor (‘World Health Organization’ WEB). Poverty has many effects, including poor health, among others. Nonetheless, poverty is a social phenomenon, which is experienced in all countries, including the developed and developing countries.

The social phenomenon of poverty is not as simple as it might appear. This is a complex phenomenon, which is complicated. Therefore, it is has proved challenging to provide a universal definition of this phenomenon. In addition, it is also complicated and challenging to discover the real causes of poverty. Different scholars studying this phenomenon have identified differing causes, and most have disagreed on which ones to term as the main causes of this phenomenon (Lusted 12). Nonetheless, some of the main factors considered to cause poverty include unequal distribution of resources in the society, and environmental degradation. Unequal distribution of resources makes some people to be termed rich, and others poor. Therefore, the group of people with limited access to resources will experience poverty. On the other hand, environmental degradation will affect those people who solely rely on the environment for natural resources. Farmers, anglers, are affected negatively by environmental degradation, therefore, making them poor (‘Fight Poverty’ WEB).

Nonetheless, the phenomenon of poverty is important in the world today, as through tis, the distribution patterns of wealth and resources can be traced. This would therefore, help most sociologists understand other social issues in different countries, with regard to their poverty levels. Sociologists and Anthropologists argue that poverty is a phenomenon that has existed throughout history, even before the recorded history. This is because the element of social stratification is inherent in the human society. Therefore, status, wealth, and power are all unequally distributed in society, even in the prehistoric times.

Poverty is real and has been existent in the world over the past centuries. According to the records of the United Nations, poverty exists in most continents. In addition, Anthropologists and sociologists have traced poverty to the ancient eras, including the early periods of civilization. In addition, poverty is evident during the colonial era, according to sociologists. Today, the phenomenon of poverty is more prevalent in the third-world countries. Most African countries are stricken with poverty as shown by the increased deaths due to hunger, as well as increased immortality rates. Most poor African countries have therefore, benefited from considerable amount of aid and relief from the West (‘WHO’ WEB). On the other hand, in most developed countries, the government supports the few poor countries through financial assistance. Homelessness in both developed and developing countries is an evidence of poverty in those countries. Poverty is a problematic phenomenon, considering it is among the social phenomena that humankind has failed to address. Poverty is detrimental, but no strategy over the years, has been instrumental in eliminating it. Nonetheless, between environmental degradation and unequal distribution of resources, unequal distribution of resources in society is the most valid cause of poverty. If all people in society would access wealth in the same measure, then there would not exist the phenomenon of poverty (‘Fight Poverty’ WEB).

Environmental degradation has existed for the past few decades, and there has been awareness about this aspect, which generally bears negative consequences for human beings. It is argued that environmental degradation leads to depletion of natural resource in the environment. In addition, environmental degradation is considered to have negative effects on the poor people in society and lead to the increase of their poverty levels. Throughout history in the world, the poor people are known to rely solely on the environment and the resources in the environment for their basic needs. Most poor would practise farming, hunting, and gathering for food. On the other hand, they get their fuel from firewood, and some use wild herbs for medication. This is because they lack money to purchase such like needs from the market. Therefore, the more the environment is degraded, natural resources get depleted, putting the poor, who depend on them at a risk (Duraiappah 3-5).

Environmental degradation makes the poor people more poor, since the natural resources they rely on are depleted, leaving them with less natural resources to use. Therefore, the aspect of environmental degradation fails to explain the aspect of initial poverty. It then seems poverty cannot result from environmental degradation, since this does not come out as a primary cause of poverty in the society. This only makes the already poor people poorer, and it does not result in fresh cases of poverty in society. This causal factor would have been considered more valid, if it made the previously rich people in society to be poor, or if it automatically, made a part of the society to be poor, while another is rich. Therefore, environmental degradation as an aspect causing poverty, lacks the right framework or mechanism of explaining the phenomenon of poverty in society.

On the other hand, unequal distribution of resources is a valid and effective factor that explains the causes of poverty in society. This mainly is associated with the culture in society. Different societies shave varying cultures, therefore, will experience the elements of culture in different ways. Unequal distribution of resources might exist in two states, including the ascribed state, and the acquired state. In the ascribed state, if a child is born to poor parents, or a family background belonging to a lower social class, it is more likely that this child might grow up to be a poor adult. The family might lack resources for the child’s education, health and proper nutrition. On the other hand, a person might acquire poverty due to unequal distribution of wealth. If a once rich person is forced by circumstances to move from his or her country to another country, this person might lose their economic status, depending on the nature of the country they move into. If the country is racist, or has policies, which do not allow employment or investments by foreigners, this immigrant is likely to become poor. Therefore, unequal distribution of resources results in different classifications of people in society, including the rich, the middle-class, and the poor. The rich have the most resources, while the poor have the least resources (‘OECD’ WEB).

Unequal distribution of resources is evident in society, and has existed in all human eras. This aspect is responsible for social classes and social stratification, an aspect that well defines poverty. People with fewer resources are poor while those with abundant resources are considered rich. This dates back to the ancient days, and today there are tales about kings and paupers, which prove social stratification and unequal distribution of resources, existed even in the ancient days. Therefore, unlike environmental degradation, which is a phenomenon of the past few decades, poverty can be appropriately explained with regard to unequal distribution of resources in society, which is an inherent aspect in society.

Comparing the stance of environmental degradation and unequal distribution of resources in society, only the latter succeeds in explaining the cause of poverty. Environmental degradation fails to offer conclusive evidence to show that it causes poverty. It also lacks the mechanisms of explaining how it results in poverty. Poverty, as seen, is a historical phenomenon. On the other hand, in historical and ancient times, environmental degradation was unheard of. Therefore, there seems to be no strong relationship between environmental degradation and poverty. This is mainly because poverty was existent when environmental degradation was absent. Therefore, there is no strong causal relationship between these two elements. Nonetheless, it is not right to disregard the importance of environmental degradation, and its contribution to poverty. As seen, the poor rely on natural resources for survival, therefore, environmental degradation limits their resources, making them more poor. Therefore, although environmental degradation does not solely cause poverty, it only contributes to the increase in poverty among the poor.

In conclusion, poverty is a social phenomenon that is complicated and hard to explain. In addition, different scholars have differed in terms of what really causes poverty, as these have identified various causes of poverty. Nonetheless, between environmental degradation and unequal distribution of resources, the former is a weaker explanation of the cause of poverty. This is because poverty was a problem even before environmental degradation surfaced. Therefore, it would be inappropriate to claim that this factor is a sole cause of poverty. Unequal distribution of resources in society is as old as poverty, and causes social stratification, which is a basis of poverty, as poverty is a characteristic of the lower social class.

 

 

 

Works Cited

Fight Poverty. “Causes of Poverty.” Viewed 19 March 2013

< http://www.fightpoverty.mmbrico.com/poverty/reasons.html>

OECD. “Growing Unequal? Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries: Income

Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries.” London: OECD Publishing, 2008.

World Health Organization (WHO). “Poverty.” Viewed 19 March 2013

<http://www.who.int/topics/poverty/en/>

Das, Ratan. “Poverty and Hunger: Causes and Consequences.” Mumbai: Sarup & Sons, 2006.

Duraiappah, Anatha. “Poverty and Environmental Degradation: A Literature Review and

Analysis.” New Jersey: IIED, 1996.

Lusted, Marcia. “Poverty.” New York: ABDO, 2010.

 

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FedEx Corporation

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18^th, March 2013

 

 

Most companies are victims of the economic meltdown, which experienced in the previous years. In the aftermath of the financial crisis, most companies have not recovered from the after-effects, and are still struggling to recover, mainly through the adoption of various recovery strategies (Meuse & Marks, 2003). Like other companies in the market, FedEx Corporation, is in need of recovery strategies that will help it regain its profitability and competitiveness in the market. This company has settled for a layoff, which means that a considerable number of its employees will lose their jobs, in order for the company to cut on the costs it incurs, especially on their remuneration. Layoffs have different effects on companies, and if not managed well, these might bear detrimental effects on the company. Therefore, in order to ensure that the expected layoff meets the expected goal of cost cutting, without affecting the company negatively, FedEx Corporation has to either undergo restructuring or maintain its Human Resources practices, in order to cope with the expected layoff. Nonetheless, maintaining its current HR will be more effective, than the company having to undergo restructuring.

FedEx has one of the most notable HRM, known to have propelled the organization to great economic heights. The company’s HRM has had positive effects on its profitability, and this has help it achieve competitive advantages in the market over the years, as it has given the company an edge over its competitors. Therefore, it is more appropriate that this company maintains its HRM, whether it undergoes layoffs, or any other organizational change. In order to develop and establish the current HRM, including tools and practices, FedEx Corporation invested heavily in this. Therefore, abandoning this HRM would mean that the company starts afresh in restructuring another HRM, which would be costly and time consuming. In this case, therefore, restructuring is a bad choice for FedEx Corporation.

According to (Anthony, Kacmar, & Perrewe, 2010), restructuring affects the employees in an organization, as well as the overall HR functions, including recruitment and selection, training, HR planning, employee compensation and benefits, as well as organizational development. Therefore, if FedEx Corporation would choose restructuring, this would mean that it has to as well restructure its HRM, therefore, having to give up on some of the most effective HRM practices that it has previously employed, and which have propelled it to stability and high ranking in the market. This will probably influence the company negatively.

In addition, restructuring comes with a cost. The main reason for contemplating a layoff in this company is to cut on costs, therefore, if restructuring leads to more expenses, then the layoff might not be worthy (Meuse, & Marks, 2003). Nonetheless, restructuring will affect the employees in the company in a negative way, since the company will have to cut on their compensation and benefits, in order to balance the costs incurred in restructuring (Alkhafaji, 2001). Benefits and compensation for employees has been a key way of ensuring employee motivation in FedEx Corporation. Employees are the determinants of a company’s productivity. Therefore, cutting down on their benefits would be a way of demotivating them, thus, they will be less productive, as compared to the previous period, where they were entitled to benefits. This then will lower the company’s productivity, taking it down the economic ladder.

I therefore, recommend that FedEx should maintain its HR, as this has helped it to achieve competitive advantages over decades. The HR system is complex, and includes various high caliber HR practices, including the adoption of technology, retention of employees, employee benefits, training, and communication channels, among others, which have been successful over the years. In case of restructuring, the company will have to give up some of these HR processes, and compromise on others, as a way of cost cutting, or adapting to the new system. Therefore, this might lead to an ineffective HRM, than the one currently adopted. Instead of restructuring, therefore, it is more appropriate if Fed Ex maintains its HR, and works to improve it, and align it to the various needs that will be presented to the company as a result of the expected layoff.

 

References

Alkhafaji, A. (2001). Corporate Transformation and Restructuring: A Strategic Approach. New

York: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Anthony, W. P., Kacmar, K. M., & Perrewe, P. L. (2010). Human resource management: A

Strategic Approach. (6th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.

Meuse, K. & Marks, M. (2003). Resizing the Organization: Managing Layoffs, Divestitures, and

Closings. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

 

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Leadership and Governance in Profit and Nonprofit Organizations

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17^th, March 2013

 

 

Leadership and governance are two most important factors considered in both for-profit and nonprofit organizations. These two aspects are quite similar, and help both organizations in achieving their goals and objectives. Engagement leadership in organizations is whereby the leaders in the organization influence employees, basing on their resourcefulness, to contribute to the achievement of company goals, while upholding positive relations with them. This way, when the leader faces a challenge, it is easier for them to address, as the employees will support him or her. On the other hand, governance involves the use of power to achieve control in an organization. This is mainly through the authority that is given to leaders, who make rules and enforce the rules in an organization, including the code of conduct, as a strategy of achieving company goals (Chait, Ryan, & Taylor, 2011). Ideally, leadership and governance in profit and nonprofit organizations is conducted in a similar manner, with the board of trustees playing the main role. However, a few aspects might vary, considering the fact that these organizations are of different nature.

In both profit and non-profit organizations, there are different programs and projects, which are undertaken as part of the fulfillment of the mandate of the organization. These need to be effective, and in most cases, these determine the effectiveness of the organization. In this case, leadership and governance are core in ensuring that there is robust development of the programs and projects. In both the for-profit and nonprofit organizations, there is a structure of leadership, where different responsibilities are distributed to various individuals in the organization, depending on their rank and position. However, of great importance in these organizations is the board of trustees, or board of directors, which is responsible for overseeing and influencing all the leadership and governance activities in the organization (Agard, 2010).

Nonprofit organizations mainly are philanthropic in nature, and do not expect to gain profits after their projects are completed (Agard, 2010). On the other hand, profit organizations have ‘profits’ as their driving force. However, in both organizations, a board of directors, who ensure that the organization functions well, mainly heads them. The board also ensures that projects run as they have planned. The nature of the board of directors varies from country to country. However, this comprises a minimum of three people and a maximum of 50 people in most countries. These figures depend on the rules of a country, but the size of the board varies from one organization to another, depending on the needs and nature of the organization (Chait, Ryan, & Taylor, 2011).

Since nonprofit organizations are based on philanthropy, the board members offer their expertise and services at no cost, thus, they are not paid for being part of the board. However, in some nonprofit organizations, the board members might be given considerable compensation once in a while, depending on the by-laws of the organization. This compensation is therefore, not same as salary, as it might not be consistent. The reason why board members are not paid in nonprofit organizations is to enhance the spirit of volunteerism, which is deeply embedded in nonprofit organizations. The board members therefore, should have the desire to help, which is a unique attribute. On the contrary, board members in profit organizations are paid for their responsibilities on the board. These therefore, work under restrictions, and are accountable for decisions they make in the organization, especially, if the decision affects company profits detrimentally (Chait, Ryan, & Taylor, 2011).

In nonprofit and profit organizations, the board of directors is in charge of the governance. Depending on how the board organizes itself, its responsibilities are vast, and therefore, the board might further be broken down into committees, which are responsible for different duties. The head of the board is responsible for the co-ordination of the work of the board of directors. The board of directors in both organizations is held accountable for the different policies of the organization, and therefore, it is their responsibility to ensure that the organization operates as per its policies (Cornforth, 2005).

A board of directors in nonprofit and profit organizations has the mandate of setting the goals of the organization, which give direction to the operations of the organization. Additionally, the board manages the assets in the organization. In nonprofit organizations, the board ensures that assets, which are mainly obtained from donors, are not wasted, or used in a corrupt manner. In both nonprofit and profit organizations, the board plays the role of authorizing and overseeing budgets in the organization, for effective management of finances. Despite the similarities in roles of the board, responsibilities of the board in profit organizations are more inclined to the business issues of the organization (Cornforth, 2005).

In both nonprofit and profit organizations, the board of directors is responsible for the identification of the organization’s senior employee, who is the CEO in profit organizations. The board also liaises with the selected CEO in selecting other people to be included in the management team. The board advises the CEO and the management team in the company, which is also responsible for ensuring that their performance meets the standards of the organization. In organizations, governance and leadership is highly vested in board of directors. However, it is the duty of the board and the management team to ensure that other staff members also participate in leadership, mainly through their contribution to decision-making in the organization (Chait, Ryan, & Taylor, 2011).

Transparency is an important factor in both the profit and nonprofit organizations. A transparent organization is one that reports to the public about its operations and important organizational issues in an honest and prompt way. This could be through honest financial reporting, annual reports, compensation structure, and other core activities in the organization, which are all availed to the public. The more transparent an organization is, the more it strengthens its trustworthiness. Therefore, donors, the public, and regulators, among other key bodies, might judge an organization, with regard to its transparency level (Garsten & Montoya, 2008).

Transparency influences both profit and nonprofit organizations. However, most nonprofits have prioritized this, since failure to adhere might cost them much, compared to the profit organization. Prioritize transparency prevents public and government investigations. For the nonprofits, it also prevents donor mistrust. Nonprofit are therefore, obliged to adhere to reporting procedures. In addition, all correct use of resources must aim at the achievement of organization’s goals. The board in the nonprofits also ensures that organization’s core decision-making is availed to the public. In addition, its annual report, comprising details on the year’s core activities and performance, is produced and made available to the public. Nonprofits also ensure that they report misconduct, and protect the employee bearing the report from any detrimental effects. Finally, the board and management must guarantee a non-discriminatory environment for employees, clients, and all constituents. Nonprofits must embrace transparency, to maintain their donors, who the source of their finances (Garsten & Montoya, 2008).

In the profit organizations, transparency and accountability is employed mainly to avoid scandals in the governance of the organization. Reforms in profit organizations also center on transparency. As in nonprofits, the board in profit organizations ensures transparency. The board monitors the management team to analyze their performance. Their ability is then publicized. In some cases, the CEO’s in profit organizations might manipulate the information to be released to the public, in order to make the public have a positive image of the organization. Nonetheless, as in the nonprofit organizations, transparency in profit organizations comprises financial reporting, disclosure of key decision-making, release of annual report to the public, availing information about the operations of the organization. In addition, since profit organizations aim at profit maximization, they have different policies, which help them achieve this. Therefore, these business policies are also availed to the public, in support of transparency in the organization (Garsten & Montoya, 2008). In both profit and nonprofit organization, leadership and governance is a responsibility of the board, and most staff members do not participate in leadership at the organizational level, but at the lower levels in the organization, including the personal level.

 

References

Agard, K. (2010). Leadership in Nonprofit Organizations: A Reference Handbook, Volume 1.

London: SAGE.

Chait, J., Ryan, W. & Taylor, B. (2011). Governance as Leadership: Reframing the Work of

Nonprofit Boards. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Cornforth, C. (2005). The Governance of Public and Non-profit Organizations: What Do

Boards Do? London: Routledge.

Garsten, C. & Montoya, M. (2008). Transparency in a New Global Order: Unveiling

Organizational Visions. New York: Edward Elgar Publishing.

 

 

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Week 2 Application

Ali Ghandour

Walden University

Doctoral Study Mentoring

 

Indian Negotiation Styles

 

ABSTRACT

Over the centuries, India has remained one of the most significant destinations for international commerce. A range of unique factors has contributed to India’s growing relevance in international trade. Processes of economic liberalization and globalization have contributed to the steady growth experienced in the country. India’s economic growth was estimated at 7.5 % in the year 2000. Some of the areas that have experienced significant growth include the Informational Communication and Technology (ICT) sector and import-export trade. A break from socialist policies to a capitalist oriented economic structure has been cited as one of the contributing factors to the country’s economic growth. Western countries have increased their levels of interest in the country for purposes of economic partnership. India’s high population estimated at over a billion has attracted foreign investors who seek market for their products or cheap labor. However engaging with India demands a deeper connection with the culture, attitudes, and philosophies underlying their business practices.

 

 

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT. 2

The Problem.. 3

The Problem Background. 4

Purpose of the Study. 8

Research Question. 10

Research Hypotheses. 10

Literature Review.. 10

Research Methodology. 11

Methods of Data Collection. 13

References. 16

 

The Problem

Multinationals and other global business entities that have attempted to establish their businesses in India have been faced with unique challenges that demanded the understanding of the corporate climate. The levels of success or failure in Indian business are directly related to the manner in which international players adjust to the unique character of Indian culture. Studies have established a strong connection between culture and business in the Indian context. Past and recent analyses on Indian negotiating style show that the styles adopted in Indian business environment are largely consistent with their cultural believes, social values, and attitudes towards life in general (Stephen, 2010).

Indians embrace family values and respect the aspect of honesty, respect, order, and hierarchy. Indian culture also features a strong element of interpersonal communications and relationships. The individual is never separate from the deal. They view the negotiation in human terms rather than strictly technical business processes. In essence, Indian negotiating styles combines the values of culture honesty and details in ways that focus largely on the results rather than the processes. It is therefore important for business theorists to establish ways of establishing ways through which the synergies of culture, attitudes, and values can be incorporated into business practice.

It is currently not known how all multinationals in India can equally achieve success in their business processes, since the Indian culture and negotiating style poses a challenge to them. Although some multinationals in India have succeeded, a considerable number have registered failure, due to lack of knowledge on how to successfully negotiate in India. Failure of these multinationals to take into account the culture and negotiating styles of India will result in their continued low profitability and productivity in India.

 

 

The Problem Background

For more than the past twenty years, foreign companies have been trying to gain entry into the business environment of India. Although these organizations have always managed to enter the Indian market, they have failed to realize their target profits, even as their productivity decreases each year. This contrasts the fact that the revenue of India has kept improving for the past number of years. If the economy improves, one would expect also all the companies in the country to have increased productivity. However, this was not the case with foreign companies in India. While the growth rate of the Indian economy topped at 7 percent, the growth rate of multinational companies lagged behind, standing at less than a half of the Indian growth rate (Choudhary, Kshirsagar, & Narayanan, 2012).

In India, business is considered as a culture and not simply a means towards profits. Success and failure are assessed in terms of the character and ability of agents rather than logical outcomes of strategies and processes (Martin, & Chaney, 2009). In the context of international business, the negotiation process in India is considered, in many circles, as a process of balance of power and an adjustment of equilibriums between the presumed cultural greatness of the west and Indian culture. Cultural balance and cultural universalism acquire more prominence to challenge the negative assumptions resident in theories of cultural relativism as understood in business context.

Indian negotiating styles significantly rely on the details (Zubko, & Sahay, 2010). Issues are broken down into their constituent parts and analyzed in accordance with the manner in which they relate to the bigger picture. In essence, the process entails the realization of a range of issues that connect with outcomes. Usually, the focus begins with the bigger picture before attention is given to the driving factors and the specifics of the deal. Clarity and order in the details of the deal becomes necessary for purposes of assessing the feasibility of the deal. Naturally, Indians prefer the guidance of clear data and mathematical procedure towards the attainment of a given goal. This trait is consistent with the cultural attachment to matters of mathematical and scientific importance. Studies have connected these traits to the flourishing IT and medicine culture in the country.

Family and business comprise the uniform continuum that forms part of the Indian culture (Desai, 2012). Appreciating the family connections behind India’s corporate world remains a key starting point of developing insights into the working of the system. Usually, knowledge on the role and place of family in the business environment is an important advantage in developing better negotiation strategies in the Indian business environment. Businesses are usually hereditary. Such knowledge should also be accompanied by the awareness of the kind of hierarchies that run through families and kinships (Gesteland, & Gesteland, 2010). The process of negotiation is usually considered in terms of the transaction of power and respect between the negotiating parties. Acknowledgement of status is considered of ultimate importance in the general process of negotiation. This particular attribute is consistent with the caste nature of Indian society, which requires an appreciation of classes, divisions, and hierarchies.

Language plays an important role in India’s communication style. Generally, Indian business negotiations are conducted in vocabularies of respect and honor (Zubko, & Sahay, 2010). Certain words and responses that are innocuous in the general western discourse are usually considered as offensive or rude within India’s cultural and business context. Denials, oppositions, and rejections have to be conducted in kind words that do not provide any hints of rudeness or lack of finesse in the communication process. However, emotional appeals and vigorous defense of facts is permissible as a way of building advantage on aspects of the deal. Such negotiations should, in most cases, be accompanied by workable details, examples, methods, and all relevant information that would provide both competitive advantage and influence in the part of the deal. Proof and details are necessary factors for furnishing optimism in the deals.

Feedback remains one of the key factors in effective business communication within the Indian context (Gesteland, & Gesteland, 2010). Generally, feedback implies a sense of respect and trust, which are the necessary characters of nurturing and sustaining long-term business relations within India’s corporate environment. Honesty, fidelity, and compromise are some of the factors that determine the level of success of negotiation in the Indian business environment. Presentation and character are some of the factors that guarantee success or failure in the Indian negotiating environment. Indians prefer and develop trust and respect in people who dress modestly and whose character displays a certain level of honor. Negotiation is considered as a process of socialization. Indian culture encourages socialization among equals. Therefore, it becomes important to adjust one’s demeanor and presentation in the course of negotiations.

The key to improving in business transactions in India calls for managers to learn how to align their business goals and objectives with respect to the Indian culture and negotiating style. With this realization, some multinationals in India started to adopt elements of the Indian culture in their company practices and policies, and they learnt the negotiating styles of India. This ensured a considerable difference in the productivity and performance of multinationals in the Indian business environment. In the past few years, multinationals have started to register positive improvement in their productivity in India, compared to the previous years.

Today, however, there remains a disparity in the performance level of multinationals in India. While some succeed in their businesses in India and get commendable profits from this, others are suffering huge loses, even though to them, they are adhering to the right standards of business in India. Nonetheless, it is believed that the cultural aspect of India is quite complex and rigid, and yet some of these cultural elements are reflected in the business negotiations style. This in turn has made Indian negotiation style to be quite complex and fixed as well. If multinationals ignore the Indian negotiating style and culture in their business, they are therefore, more likely to fail today, as most evidence point to this. It is advantageous that multinations adapt to Indian negotiation and culture, even as today the country is expected to grow by 6 percent every year, which is a growth rate of some of the big emerging economies. (Choudhary, Kshirsagar, & Narayanan, 2012).

Purpose of the Study

This research on the international business negotiations in India, aims at understanding the business negotiating style of India, including the variety of ways through which they negotiate, why this is important in India, and the different factors that shape or influence international business negotiations in India. The international business negotiations do not only involve communication in the economic context among countries. Cultures of the different participating countries play a big role in the international negotiation process (Ayoko, 2007). During the process of negotiation, the ideas and behaviours of the different parties are shaped by their own national cultures. In India, culture is the core and basis of business, thereby, playing the greatest role in their negotiations. The purpose of this study is therefore, to determine how different cultural components of the Indian culture influence their international business negotiations.

Among the important cultural components in India, which this research will discuss, is the cultural factor of Language. The researcher noted that this is an influential aspect of Indian culture in their international negotiation process, as this generally influences the communication process during the negotiations. Normally, different countries exhibit varying values, thinking patterns, and group consciousness (Mayrhofer, 2004). During negotiations, these differences always come up. Therefore, the study will address these important aspects with regard to India, and their negotiation styles. Among the values that the Indians uphold are feedback, which is based on mutual trust, honesty, and understanding, use of respectful and kind language in communication, and ensuring that there is clarity in communication. All these Indian values influence their international business negotiation styles, therefore, are of interest to this study.

This study mainly aims to establish why culture is a great player in the international business negotiations in India. Hollensen (2001) notes that, the cultures of the various parties in the negotiation process need to be understood, for a successful negotiation to be reached. This helps in gaining of balance between the cultures of the different parties in the negotiation, thus, this becomes a good strategy in negotiation processes among different countries. This study also has the purpose of determining how social organization in India influences their international business negotiation styles. This is with respect to the family unit, which plays a great role in the Indian business. Therefore, this study will seek to understand how the role of the family unit in Indian businesses is transferred to their international business negotiations, and how this role of the family unit will shape and influence the negotiation styles in India. Additionally, the researcher noted that Indians are known to be strategic people in their businesses, prioritizing the long-term business benefits. Therefore, this study will also determine how this aspect is applied to international business negotiations, and how it influences the Indian negotiation styles.

Having a clear understanding of the negotiation styles of a country helps successful business and social interactions. Therefore, this study is important, as it sheds light on the negotiation styles of India, and this will be beneficial to American companies interested in doing business with Indians. In addition, anyone involved in different levels of social interaction with Indians, or in any other activity that requires negotiation with Indians, will find this study useful too, as it gives details of the negotiation styles of India. This study focuses on the negotiation style of India in international business negotiations, with respect to their culture, which greatly shapes their negotiation styles.

Research Question

This study addresses the question: What are the elements that shape international business negotiating styles in India, how is the process conducted, and how can this process be made effective? In addition: To what extent does the Indian culture influence American businesses in the country?

Research Hypotheses

Multinational companies and other business entities, which know and understand the Indian culture, their style of negotiation, and adhere to these, are more likely to succeed in doing business in India and interacting with Indians, compared to those multinationals and businesses that lack knowledge about Indian culture and negotiation style.

Literature Review

Neelankavil & Rai (2009) note that cultural environment, including social systems, is external to a company, but influences the company’s operations, as well as behaviors. They argue that it is more challenging for a company to operate in an international business environment, than a domestic business environment. Additionally, according to Katz (2008), for a multinational company to be successful in a new business environment, it is important that the company studies the dynamics in the new environment, and evaluate its probability of adapting to the required standards. Multinationals must respect and adjust to the personal, business, and social behaviours, as required by the Indian culture.  On the other hand, Rößiger & R藏Iger (2009) consider the Indian culture as diverse and quite restrictive. For instance, during the negotiation period, meetings are not arranged for using indirect communication mediums such as mails, text messages, among others, but only through direct face-to-face communication. The negotiation process in India is built on trust of the involved parties, and these must exhibit trust, which is the core of Indian negotiation style. The Indian negotiating style is also more prolonged, with many procedures, compared to that in the US and other countries. This negotiating style is more rigid and fixed, competitive, and goal-oriented. Therefore, there is no room for compromise (Rößiger & R藏Iger, 2009). Therefore, this could be one of the reasons as to why adapting to Indian culture and negotiation style is challenging to some multinationals.

Research Methodology

This section comprises information about the methods of data collection and general methodology that will be employed in this dissertation, in order to find solutions to the research question: What are the elements that shape international business negotiating styles in India, how is the process conducted, and how can this process be made effective? In addition, to what extent does the Indian culture influence American businesses in the country?

In this dissertation, the main type of data that will be used is qualitative data. The major reason for choosing qualitative data is that for the research question to be answered; only data, which is subjective in nature, needs to be captured. The nature of this study, with regard to the research question, mainly calls for the use of qualitative data, since the answers gathered in this research might not be quantifiable or objective in any way. According to Kothari (2009), when choosing a methodology for research, it is essential that the research is well acquainted with the disparities between qualitative and quantitative data, to help in the making of a right choice. Therefore, having known the nature of this research, a choice of qualitative data, is agreed upon.

Qualitative research mainly involves the collection of data, which is subjective in nature. In this case, therefore, a qualitative research comprises data on issues that are subjective, including behaviour patterns, experiences, and attitudes, among others. This is collected by subjecting the participants to in-depth interviews, focus groups, among others. According to Myers (2008), the methods used in qualitative research are meant to enable researchers to debunk various behaviors or actions among the respondents in their respective cultural and social contexts. Myers (2008) has identified one benefit of qualitative research, as having the ability to understand the different contexts in which various people act.

On the other hand, quantitative research is a kind of research where the data collected is quantifiable. Unlike in qualitative research where the data is subjective in nature, in quantitative research, the collected data is objective in nature. In quantitative research, there are various variables in the research, and the size of the sample in this study is often larger than that of qualitative research. In addition, quantitative research is carried out using surveys, questionnaires, and interviews, among others, which are all performed on a large scale basis, compared to qualitative research, where participants are dealt with one after another. Therefore, quantitative research is faster than qualitative research, based on the procedures involved in both processes (Bryman & Bell, 2006).

Therefore, as it turns out, both qualitative and quantitative are approaches, which are different, but used in the collection of data. Each approach is employed to a research study, depending on the type and nature of data, which needs to be collected in the study. Not all the research methods available can be termed as entirely good or bad, because, these are employed in different studies, therefore, they can be appropriate in specific study types, or less appropriate in others (Kothari, 2009). Therefore, in this research, the qualitative approach is employed, because, the data that needs to be collected is subjective in nature. As Bryman & Bell (2007) note, this approach is of essence, as it helps in subjectivity understanding.

There are a number of advantages in using qualitative data in research, as opposed to quantitative data. The advantages of this approach in research mainly draw on its underlying philosophy and the core assumptions it holds (Myers, 2008). Therefore, since this study is concerned with the views of respondents on the entire process of international business negotiating styles in India, and observations on how this affects American businesses in the country, it is more appropriate to employ the qualitative approach, as it will guarantee detailed information on the subject under study.

Methods of Data Collection

            In this dissertation, both primary and secondary data will be collected, and analysed in order to help in the exploration of the research question. The data collection method, which is selected for this research is the in-depth interviewing method. In this method, the type of interview employed has no specific structure. This is conducted at the personal level, where an individual will be subjected to different intensive questions. The individual is required to express himself or herself freely, while giving information about the research topic. While doing this, the researcher will not in any way whatsoever, influence the information given to them by the respondent.

Different factors come into play during the process of negotiation between parties from different cultural backgrounds. Salacuse (1999) came up with a number of factors, which affect cross-cultural business negotiations. These can be used as a basis for describing the business negotiation style of Indians, and can also be used to develop the disparities between Indian ways of negotiation, with regard to the American way. These two steps will then help in understanding the process of business negotiation in India. The differences established between Indian and American ways of negotiation, will help unravel the impact on American companies in India.

According to Salacuse (1999), the sensitivity of time, personal styles, and the goal of negotiation, are among the different factors which he identified that influence the negotiation process. In this research, these three factors will be the basis upon which the questionnaires used will be drawn. Business practitioners from both the American side and the Indian side will answer the questionnaires, and all must have businesses based in India.

The nature of the questionnaire will bear an in-depth interview for the respondents, which is important in order for them to provide detailed information that is sufficient to answer the research questions. The respondents will be interviewed from the comfort of their business premises. This venue is appropriate, as it ensures that the respondents are comfortable and relaxed, since they are more familiar with the area. In addition, this will also help respondents to be more open enough to express themselves freely. The researcher will play the role of explaining and simplifying questions in the questionnaire, in order to the respondents to give relevant answers, after a clear understanding of the questions.

The type of data that will be collected and analysed in this research will include both primary and secondary data. Primary data will be collected through questionnaires, as well as direct observation, and interviewing. On the other hand, secondary data will be collected from published sources bearing information on the research topic. Therefore, before embarking on the collection of primary data, the researcher will first consult secondary data sources, as this will also provide an important insight into the issue under research. The use of secondary data in the research will be helpful as the data is easy to analyse. This also saves time, which would have otherwise been dedicated to interviews from person to person. However, secondary data is more useful in quantitative data, as this requires large amounts of data. Therefore, this saves more time in quantitative research (Sapsford & Jupp, 2006).

.Sapsford & Jupp (2006) note that, if secondary data is used in quantitative research, it is cheap for the researcher to complete the research process. This is because most of the background information is already available, including literature reviews and case studies. The main disadvantage of solely relying on secondary data is that it is not possible for the researcher to confirm the validity of the research findings. Therefore, secondary data present a challenge of low reliability. Nonetheless, in this research, I will use more authentic secondary sources, including books and reliable journals. This will help in shading more light on the research topic. The information will also be compared to the research findings to show any relationship.

 

 

 

References

Choudhary, V., Kshirsagar, A. & Narayanan, A. (2012 March). “Strategy Practice: How

Multinationals can win in India.” McKinsey Quarterly. Retrieved 17 February 2013 http://www.asia.udp.cl/Informes/2012/multinationals_india.pdf

Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2007). Business Research Methods. London: Oxford University Press.

Desai, R. (2012). Indian Business Culture. London: Routledge.

Gesteland, R. R., & Gesteland, M. C. (2010). India: Cross-cultural business behavior: for business people, expatriates and scholars. Frederiksberg: Copenhagen Business School Press.

Kaz, L. (2008). “Negotiating International Business – The Negotiator’s Reference Guide

to 50 Countries Around the World.” New York: BookSurge Llc.

Kelley, L. L. (2009). The impact of cultures on global virtual teams of India and the united states: A case study. Capella University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 203-n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305165834?accountid=14872. (305165834).

Kothari, C. R. (2009). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Jersey: New Age International.

Martin, J. S., & Chaney, L. H. (2009). Passport to success: The essential guide to business culture and customs in America’s largest trading partners. Westport, Conn: Praeger.

Myers, M. D. (2008). Qualitative Research in Business & Management. London: SAGE.

Neelankavil, J. & Rai, Anoop. (2009). “Basics of International Business.” New Jersey: M.E.

Sharpe.

Rößiger, J. & R藏Iger, J. (2009). “India as Destination for Western Retailers.” New York:

Diplomica Verlag.

Salacuse, J. W. (1999). Intercultural Negotiation in International Business. Group

decision and negotiation, 8(3): 217-236.

Sapsford, R. & Jupp, V. (2006). Data Collection and Analysis. London: SAGE.

Stephen, B. (2010). India. London, Great Britain: Kuperard.

Verma, R. (2008). Growth, trade, and structural change in low income industrializing economies. University of Southern California). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 65-n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304467319?accountid=14872. (304467319).

Wilks, L. R. P. (2007). Cultural differences in ethically questionable negotiation behaviors. University of Calgary (Canada)).ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 136-n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304899163?accountid=14872. (304899163).

Zubko, K. C., & Sahay, R. R. (2010). Inside the Indian business mind: A tactical guide for managers. Santa Barbara, Calif: Praeger.

 

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DIFFERENCES IN THEORY AND PRACTICE, BETWEEN DIRECT AND REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY

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15^th, September, 2013

 

Democratic governments are those that include their citizens in the process of governance, either directly or indirectly. This type of government is different from that where governance and decision-making is a responsibility of a few individuals, or where a few individuals, who are high-ranking in the country, are solely responsible for all decision-making. In the world today, various countries have adopted democratic governance, where citizens are allowed to participate in governance. However, there are different types of democracies, and each country adopts one depending on their political nature and needs. The different types of democracies vary in the level in which citizens are allowed to participate in governance. Most countries in the world have adopted representative governance, where citizens elect leaders of their choice to represent them at the state level, and be responsible for making important decisions on their behalf. On the other hand, if a country adopts direct democracy, the citizens themselves participate in governance directly. Fossedal (2005) notes that the original element of democracy is believed to have originated in Athens in 5^th Century BC, and the type of democracy adopted in this country was direct democracy. This paper will address the nature of representative democracies and direct democracies, and establish the differences between these two forms of democracies.

According to Manin (1997) all democracies must fulfil the four main principles of democracy, in order to be regarded as true democracies. However, the magnitude to which the different democratic systems uphold these democratic principles vary from one democracy to another. Nonetheless, any democratic system must ensure that its citizens are entitled to justice. A democratic government will therefore, play the role of safeguarding people’s justice, and ensuring that all its citizens are treated in a just manner. Secondly, democratic governments should ensure that all citizens experience equity in the country, and that no citizen is given priority over another. In addition, the freedoms of people are crucial in democratic governance. Citizens in a democratic government will therefore, live and act without any interference from the government or fellow citizens. Finally, there is the aspect of representation. This however, mostly applies to a representative democracy, where the majority of people choose their representatives through elections. These will be responsible or representing the majority in governance (Manin 1997). Although these elements of democracy are found in both representative and direct democracies, they vary in the way in which they are applied in governance. For instance, in representative democracies, it is the responsibility of the representatives to make important decisions in governance, while in direct democracies; the people themselves participate in decision-making on core functions in governance.

According to Beedham (n.d), many countries have adopted representative democracy, compared to direct democracies. In representative democracies, a part of the citizens comprises the eligible voters. These qualify to vote at different state levels, as they have attained the right age, among other conditions. The voters then vote in political leaders of their choice, who will represent them at the state level. This factor of representation varies in representative and direct democracies. The elected individuals in representative democracies serve as officials in the government, and hold positions in the parliament or senate, among others. While in these positions, these are expected to serve the interests of the larger population, which elected them to those positions (Manin 1997). On the contrary, in direct democracies, citizens do not need to be represented by an elected minority in government. Instead, the process of decision-making in governance is open to all citizens, who participate without any favouritism. While representatives sit together in parliament to discuss issues affecting their people and how to address them, in direct democracies, all citizens in a country sit together, mention their different concerns, develop ways of addressing them, and reaching a final decision on how to handle their concerns (‘UNDESA’ 2005).

Of all the countries in the world, there is only one, which allows for direct democracy for their people in all its state levels. Fossedal (2005) has identified Switzerland as a country that has embraced direct democracy, and this has proved to serve this country well, considering the level of political maturity and equity experienced in Switzerland. In Switzerland, direct democracy is offered at various levels of governance, including the federal level, the state level, and the communal level. Another aspect in Switzerland, which points to its adoption of direct democracy is the degree of its fiscal decentralization. If we compare fiscal decentralization in other countries such as Germany, and Austria, the fiscal decentralization in Switzerland comes out to be stronger than that of other countries (Fossedal 2005). In Switzerland, the different levels of the state have their own different sources of tax. This therefore, shows that in Switzerland, the citizens, even at the local level of the state, have the power to influence the budget, unlike in other democracies, where there is no fiscal decentralization. Apart from fiscal decentralization, all the citizens of Switzerland participate in the process of law making, and collectively engage in the process of determining the constitutionality of different laws in the country. Additionally, the constitution in Switzerland was developed and written collectively by all citizens (Fossedal 2005).

According to Kessler (2005), direct democracy embraces the communication, information, as well as manipulation. In direct democracy, it is essential that citizens in the country be informed of any major political development in the country. This is because, when citizens are informed, they are competent enough to participate in mature decision-making in the different political procedures in which they participate. If citizens are not well informed, they might make wrong decisions, which could be detrimental to their country, considering the fact that citizens have a great influence on governance (Kessler 2005).

The nature of the legislature in representative and direct democracies is another differentiating factor between the two types of democracies. In the representative democracies, the political leaders who are elected to hold different positions in government office are the ones that form the legislature in the country. Here, these representatives are responsible for raising the concerns of their people, and making important decisions in the government. On the other hand, in direct democracies, all citizens in the country are part of the legislature. This is because they are equally involved in important decision-making in the country (Kessler 2005).

Although most people are inclined to direct democracies, representative democracies are more popular, and it is expected that these will remain for a longer period to come, compared to direct democracies. Countries, which use representative democracies, include the USA, Britain, among others. In Britain, the majority people choose their representatives through voting, and these are given the title of ‘members of parliament.’ These are responsible for making decisions on different issues that affect citizens. They do this on behalf of those people who elected them to their positions (Pilkington 1997).

Although direct democracy is an important tool of democracy and governance, as shown in the case of Switzerland, different critics have pointed out that this could be ineffective in a country, due to various reasons. First, in direct democracy, it is the right of the citizens to participate in the major decision-making processes in their countries’ governance. Therefore, critics of direct democracy consider it to result in slow development of a country. Since different people are involved in decision-making, this slows down the process of decision-making in the country. Some critics also associate direct democracy with limited chances of innovation (Fossedal 2005).

Nonetheless, the supporters of direct democracy consider it to result in an improved state of democracy in a country, compared to the other types of democracies. In addition, direct democracy makes citizens to be more liberal since these participate in decision-making at different levels, including their influence in how the public financial resources are utilized. It is therefore, argued that direct democracy results in citizens, who are well informed, and who participate in state politics at a higher degree.  In addition, direct democracy has the capability of influencing economic development positively, as the management of finances is practiced in a more transparent manner (Fossedal 2005).

In representative democracies, it is more likely that the decisions made by the representatives will not in all cases serve the interests of the majority, as opposed to direct democracies, where decisions are made by the citizens themselves and will always serve their interests. In representative governments, crucial issues in the country are solely left to the representatives to determine and decide. These representatives come up with solutions and decisions, which most of the time do not serve the interests of the people who elected them. For instance, while most citizens in a representative democracy would detest the involvement of their country in war and disputes, their representatives might decide to engage in war for various reasons. A case in point is the Iran and Afghanistan wars, in which different countries have gotten involved. The USA and Britain have participated in this, although most of their citizens would have wished otherwise (Pilkington 1997). On the other hand, since the inception of direct democracy in Athens, the citizens themselves were responsible for making major decisions in the country. Therefore, in a direct democracy, it is rare for important decisions made in the country to not favour the citizens, since it is they that make the decisions.

Another difference between representative democracies and direct democracies bases on the nature of political party system. In many representative democracies, the element of multi-partism is evident (Leduc 2003). These different parties have their own differing ways of operation. These also differ in opinions about governance, and have different priorities. This case is different from that in direct democracy. In an ideal direct democracy, there should be a one-part system. The one political party will be neutral and have uniform agenda, priorities, and opinions, which are identical to those of the citizens (Leduc 2003). This is unlike the representative democracies, where the citizens are required to choose one political party among the many parties, which they will identify with. This phenomenon therefore, raises concerns about the nature of democracy in representative democracies. In an ideal democracy, it is the people, who have a right to participate in deciding on the various policies they would like to see in their country. However, when policies are drawn from political parties, this shows that the citizens had little or no participation in policy-making. Direct democracy on the other hand, scores high on this aspect, as all citizens participate in policy-making (Leduc 2003).

In representative democracies, sometimes the personal agendas of the ruling class override the interests of the citizens, and their perceptions of what is right for them and for their country (Pilkington 1997). However, in direct democracies, before the implementation of any important policy in the country, the citizens are allowed to scrutinize it and vote in their favour, depending on whether they want the policy to be implemented or not. If most of the citizens vote in support of a specific policy to be implemented, then that policy will be adopted, considering the majority of citizens voted for it. Therefore, more democracy is witnessed in direct democracies, as compared to representative democracies (Pilkington 1997).

In direct democracies, it is quite a challenge to control the whole political process, where each citizen is involved in decision-making. In order for effectiveness in governance, the citizens in direct democracies need to be well informed and intelligent, in order to make decisions that will be developmental to their country. It is therefore, apparent that the process of decision-making in direct democracies is slower than decision-making in representative democracies. In direct democracies, there is a large number of people involved in decision-making (‘UNDESA’ 2005). This therefore, slows the speed with which decisions will be arrived at, thus consuming much time. On the other hand, decision-making in representative democracies take a shorter time compared to direct democracies. The reason behind this is that, the minority individuals in a country, who are the representatives, are responsible for important decisions in the country, and do not involve the majority, whom they claim to represent. Therefore, since these are few in number, they will spend less time on decision-making. For this reason, it is argued that direct democracy can only be effective in a country where the population is very low, but representative democracy is effective in a highly populated country. However, with increased and advanced information technology today, it is possible for direct democracy to be exercised even in countries with a high population (Beedham n.d).

Unlike in representative democracies, all citizens in direct democracies have the privilege of influencing the process of governance directly. These citizens participate directly in elections and referendums in their country (Leduc 2003). In direct democracy therefore, there is the devolution of political power, as all citizens participate in governance, and not only a few individuals, as in the case of representative democracy. In addition, in direct democracy the citizens are guaranteed that the decisions they make are beneficial to all of them, and not to a minority section in the country, as is the case in representative democracies, where most decisions favour the few, who are in the ruling class at the expense of the majority population. On the other hand, representative democracy is considered an indirect democracy, as citizens do not participate directly because their elected representatives represent them (Leduc 2003).

Some countries such as the United States of America, apart from being representative democracies, have also embraced direct democracy, but in a partial manner. In the USA, close to 25 of the states use referendums to take action, when the majority feel that their representatives are not effective in a particular area of governance (Tolbert & Smith 2006). Although citizens have desired that referendums be pushed to the federal level, this has proven difficult to attain. In direct democracy, there is the element referred to as a ‘recall.’ Here, the citizens have the right to demand that a leader relinquishes their position, if they feel that the leader is not performing well in that particular position. This is an aspect of direct democracy, which some parts of the USA have also adopted. For instance, the state of California recalled their governor and elected Arnold Schwarzenegger as their new governor, based on performance issues (Tolbert & Smith 2006). However, this is a weak aspect of direct democracy, as it does not directly influence the most important processes in governance, such as law making, the way referendums do.

Generally, it is possible to liken an ideal direct democracy to the traditional theory of democracy, which is also known as the majoritarian theory of democracy. This theory, which was coined by Dalh Robert, posits that a democracy should bear the value of equality in its voting process. Additionally, there must be effective participation of citizens in the process of governance. Another principle is that of an enlightened understanding by citizens on governance issues as well as their inclusion, and finally the citizens should have a voice in the national agenda (Dalh 1989). An ideal direct democracy satisfies all these conditions.

On the other hand, most representative democracies today can be analysed using the pluralist theory of democracy. In this theory, it is argued that in a democracy, a group of individuals who come in power have common interests, and therefore, will rule in a way that favours them, and other wealthy people in society, forgetting about the majority. Most representative democracies today have failed, as the representatives once elected, do not represent the majority of people in parliament, but serve their own selfish interests. This is why most opponents of representative democracies argue that countries should adopt direct democracy, which is fairer than the representative democracy (Tolbert & Smith 2006).

In conclusion, representative democracy and direct democracy are important forms of democracy used in the governance of different countries. However, as seen, most countries have adopted the representative democracy, where a few individuals are elected by the majority to act as their representatives at the national level. On the other hand, in direct democracy, all citizens participate in governance and in the decision-making in important issues in their country. These two forms of democracy have different factors that differentiate them. This is mainly the factors of representation, and participation of citizens in governance, among others. Nonetheless, despite their differences, these two democracies have their specific weaknesses, which make one to be preferred over the other. Although representative democracy has been criticized for its many weaknesses compared to direct democracy, many countries have adopted it today.

 

Works Cited

‘UNDESA’ 2005, Direct & Representative Democracy: Are They Necessarily Opposed? International Conference of Engaging Communities, Viewed 15 March 2013 <http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan021106.pdf>

Beedham, B n.d, The Case for Direct Democracy, Viewed 15 March 2013,

<http://www.civitas.org.uk/pdf/Beedham.pdf>

Dalh, R 1989 Democracy and Its Critics, Yale University Press, New York.

Fossedal, G 2005, Direct Democracy in Switzerland, Transaction Publishers, New York.

Kessler, A 2005, Representative versus direct democracy, Public Choice, 122: 9-38, Viewed 15 March 2013 <http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/intranet/libpages.nsf/WebFiles/ITS+-+cir+article+Kessler/$FILE/cir+article+kessler.pdf>

Leduc, L 2003, The Politics of Direct Democracy: Referendums in Global Perspective, University of Toronto Press, New Jersey.

Manin, B 1997, The Principles of Representative Government, Cambridge University Press, New York.

Pilkington, C 1997, Representative Democracy in Britain Today, Manchester University Press, London.

Tolbert, C. & Smith, D 2006, Representation and Direct Democracy in the United States, Representation 42(1): 25-44.

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